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Vander's human physiology : the mechanisms of body function.

By: Contributor(s): Publication details: New York : McGraw-Hill, c2011.Edition: 12th ed. / Eric P. Widmaier, Hershel Raff, Kevin T. StrangDescription: 1 v. (various pagings) : col. ill. ; 29 cmISBN:
  • 9780073378107 (hard copy : alk. paper)
  • 0073378100 (hard copy : alk. paper)
Other title:
  • Human physiology
Subject(s): DDC classification:
  • QT 104 W641v 2008
Contents:
Contents Chapter. 1 Homeostasis: A Framework for Human Physiology 1.1. The Scope of Human Physiology 1.2. How Is the Body Organized? Muscle Cells and Tissue Neurons and Nervous Tissue Epithelial Cells and Epithelial Tissue Connective-Tissue Cells and Connective Tissue Organs and Organ Systems 1.3. Body Fluid Compartments 1.4. Homeostasis: A Defining Feature of Physiology 1.5. General Characteristics of Homeostatic Control Systems Feedback Systems Resetting of Set Points Feedforward Regulation 1.6. Components of Homeostatic Control Systems Reflexes Local Homeostatic Responses 1.7. Intercellular Chemical Messengers 1.8. Processes Related to Homeostasis Adaptation and Acclimatization Biological Rhythms Balance in the Homeostasis of Chemical Substances in the Body Chapter. 1 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 2 Chemical Composition of the Body. 2.1. Atoms Components of Atoms Atomic Number Atomic Weight Ions Atomic Composition of the Body 2.2. Molecules Covalent Chemical Bonds Hydrogen Bonds Molecular Shape Ionic Molecules Free Radicals 2.3. Solutions Water Molecular Solubility Concentration Hydrogen Ions and Acidity 2.4. Classes of Organic Molecules Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids ATP Chapter. 2 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 3 Cellular Structure, Proteins, and Metabolism Section A Cell Structure 3A.1. Microscopic Observations of Cells 3A.2. Membranes Membrane Structure Membrane Junctions 3A.3. Cell Organelles Nucleus Ribosomes Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Apparatus Endosomes Mitochondria Lysosomes Peroxisomes Vaults Cytoskeleton Section B Proteins 3B.1. Genetic Code 3B.2. Protein Synthesis Transcription: mRNA Synthesis Translation: Polypeptide Synthesis Regulation of Protein Synthesis Mutation. 3B.3. Protein Degradation 3B.4. Protein Secretion Section C Protein-Binding Sites 3C.1. Binding Site Characteristics Chemical Specificity Affinity Saturation Competition 3C.2. Regulation of Binding Site Characteristics Allosteric Modulation Covalent Modulation Section D Enzymes and Chemical Energy 3D.1. Chemical Reactions Determinants of Reaction Rates Reversible and Irreversible Reactions Law of Mass Action 3D.2. Enzymes Cofactors 3D.3. Regulation of Enzyme-Mediated Reactions Substrate Concentration Enzyme Concentration Enzyme Activity 3D.4. Multienzyme Reactions Section E Metabolic Pathways 3E.1. Cellular Energy Transfer Glycolysis Krebs Cycle Oxidative Phosphorylation 3E.2. Carbohydrate, Fat, and Protein Metabolism Carbohydrate Metabolism Fat Metabolism Protein and Amino Acid Metabolism Metabolism Summary 3E.3. Essential Nutrients Vitamins Chapter. 3 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries. Chapter. 4 Movement of Molecules Across Cell Membranes 4.1. Diffusion Magnitude and Direction of Diffusion Diffusion Rate Versus Distance Diffusion Through Membranes 4.2. Mediated-Transport Systems Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport 4.3. Osmosis Extracellular Osmolarity and Cell Volume 4.4. Endocytosis and Exocytosis Endocytosis Exocytosis 4.5. Epithelial Transport Chapter. 4 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 5 Control of Cells by Chemical Messengers 5.1. Receptors Regulation of Receptors 5.2. Signal Transduction Pathways Pathways Initiated by Lipid-Soluble Messengers Pathways Initiated by Water-Soluble Messengers Plasma Membrane Receptors and Gene Transcription Cessation of Activity in Signal Transduction Pathways Chapter. 5 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 6 Neuronal Signaling and the Structure of the Nervous System Section A Neural Tissue. 6A.1. Structure and Maintenance of Neurons 6A.2. Functional Classes of Neurons 6A.3. Glial Cells 6A.4. Neural Growth and Regeneration Section B Membrane Potentials 6B.1. Basic Principles of Electricity 6B.2. The Resting Membrane Potential 6B.3. Graded Potentials and Action Potentials Graded Potentials Action Potentials Section C Synapses 6C.1. Functional Anatomy of Synapses 6C.2. Mechanisms of Neurotransmitter Release 6C.3. Activation of the Postsynaptic Cell Excitatory Chemical Synapses Inhibitory Chemical Synapses 6C.4. Synaptic Integration 6C.5. Synaptic Strength Modification of Synaptic Transmission by Drugs and Disease 6C.6. Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators Acetylcholine Biogenic Amines Amino Acid Neurotransmitters Neuropeptides Gases Purines 6C.7. Neuroeffector Communication Section D Structure of the Nervous System 6D.1. Central Nervous System: Brain Forebrain Cerebellum Brainstem 6D.2. Central Nervous System: Spinal Cord. 6D.3. Peripheral Nervous System 6D.4. Autonomic Nervous System 6D.5. Blood Supply, Blood-Brain Barrier, and Cerebrospinal Fluid Chapter. 6 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 7 Sensory Physiology Section A General Principles 7A.1. Sensory Receptors The Receptor Potential 7A.2. Primary Sensory Coding Stimulus Type Stimulus Intensity Stimulus Location Central Control of Afferent Information 7A.3. Ascending Neural Pathways in Sensory Systems 7A.4. Association Cortex and Perceptual Processing Factors That Affect Perception Section B Specific Sensory Systems 7B.1. Somatic Sensation Touch and Pressure Sense of Posture and Movement Temperature Pain Neural Pathways of the Somatosensory System 7B.2. Vision Light Overview of Eye Anatomy The Optics of Vision Photoreceptor Cells and Phototransduction Neural Pathways of Vision Color Vision Color Blindness Eye Movement. 7B.3. Hearing Sound Sound Transmission in the Ear Hair Cells of the Organ of Corti Neural Pathways in Hearing 7B.4. Vestibular System The Semicircular Canals The Utricle and Saccule Vestibular Information and Pathways 7B.5. Chemical Senses Taste Smell Chapter. 7 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 8 Consciousness, the Brain, and Behavior 8.1. States of Consciousness Electroencephalogram The Waking State Sleep Neural Substrates of States of Consciousness Coma and Brain Death 8.2. Conscious Experiences Selective Attention Neural Mechanisms of Conscious Experiences 8.3. Motivation and Emotion Motivation Emotion 8.4. Altered States of Consciousness Schizophrenia The Mood Disorders: Depressions and Bipolar Disorders Psychoactive Substances, Dependences, and Tolerance 8.5. Learning and Memory Memory The Neural Basis of Learning and Memory 8.6. Cerebral Dominance and Language. Chapter. 8 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 9 Muscle Section A Skeletal Muscle 9A.1. Structure 9A.2. Molecular Mechanisms of Skeletal Muscle Contraction Sliding-Filament Mechanism Roles of Troponin, Tropomyosin, and Ca2+ in Contraction Excitation-Contraction Coupling Membrane Excitation: The Neuromuscular Junction 9A.3. Mechanics of Single-Fiber Contraction Twitch Contractions Load-Velocity Relation Frequency-Tension Relation Length-Tension Relation 9A.4. Skeletal Muscle Energy Metabolism Muscle Fatigue 9A.5. Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 9A.6. Whole-Muscle Contraction Control of Muscle Tension Control of Shortening Velocity Muscle Adaptation to Exercise Lever Action of Muscles and Bones 9A.7. Skeletal Muscle Disorders Muscle Cramps Hypocalcemic Tetany Muscular Dystrophy Myasthenia Gravis Section B Smooth and Cardiac Muscle 9B.1. Structure of Smooth Muscle. 9B.2. Smooth Muscle Contraction and Its Control Cross-Bridge Activation Sources of Cytosolic Ca2+ Membrane Activation Types of Smooth Muscle 9B.3. Cardiac Muscle Cellular Structure of Cardiac Muscle Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Cardiac Muscle Chapter. 9 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 10 Control of Body Movement 10.1. Motor Control Hierarchy Voluntary and Involuntary Actions 10.2. Local Control of Motor Neurons Interneurons Local Afferent Input 10.3. The Brain Motor Centers and the Descending Pathways They Control Cerebral Cortex Subcortical and Brainstem Nuclei Cerebellum Descending Pathways. Note continued: 10.4. Muscle Tone Abnormal Muscle Tone 10.5. Maintenance of Upright Posture and Balance 10.6. Walking Chapter. 10 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 11 The Endocrine System Section A Principles of Hormonal Control Systems 11A.1. Hormone Structures and Synthesis Amine Hormones Peptide and Protein Hormones Steroid Hormones 11A.2. Hormone Transport in the Blood 11A.3. Hormone Metabolism and Excretion 11A.4. Mechanisms of Hormone Action Hormone Receptors Events Elicited by Hormone-Receptor Binding Pharmacological Effects of Hormones 11A.5. Inputs That Control Hormone Secretion Control by Plasma Concentrations of Mineral Ions or Organic Nutrients Control by Neurons Control by Other Hormones 11A.6. Types of Endocrine Disorders Hyposecretion Hypersecretion Hyporesponsiveness and Hyperresponsiveness. Section B The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 11B.1. Control Systems Involving the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland Posterior Pituitary Gland Hormones Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones and the Hypothalamus Section C The Thyroid Gland 11C.1. Synthesis of Thyroid Hormones 11C.2. Control of Thyroid Function 11C.3. Actions of Thyroid Hormones Metabolic Actions Permissive Actions Growth and Development 11C.4. Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism Section D The Endocrine Response to Stress 11D.1. Physiological Functions of Cortisol 11D.2. Functions of Cortisol in Stress 11D.3. Adrenal Insufficiency and Cushing's Syndrome 11D.4. Other Hormones Released During Stress 11D.5. Psychological Stress and Disease Section E Endocrine Control of Growth 11E.1. Bone Growth 11E.2. Environmental Factors Influencing Growth 11E.3. Hormonal Influences on Growth Growth Hormone and Insulin-Like Growth Factors Thyroid Hormones Insulin Sex Hormones Cortisol Section F Endocrine Control of Ca2+ Homeostasis. 11F.1. Effector Sites for Ca2+ Homeostasis Bone Kidneys Gastrointestinal Tract 11F.2. Hormonal Controls Parathyroid Hormone 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D Calcitonin 11F.3. Metabolic Bone Diseases Hypercalcemia Hypocalcemia Chapter. 11 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 12 Cardiovascular Physiology Section A Overall Design of the Circulatory System 12A.1. System Overview 12A.2. Pressure, Flow, and Resistance Section B The Heart 12B.1. Anatomy Cardiac Muscle 12B.2. Heartbeat Coordination Sequence of Excitation Cardiac Action Potentials and Excitation of the SA Node The Electrocardiogram Excitation-Contraction Coupling Refractory Period of the Heart 12B.3. Mechanical Events of the Cardiac Cycle Mid-Diastole to Late Diastole Systole Early Diastole Pulmonary Circulation Pressures Heart Sounds 12B.4. The Cardiac Output Control of Heart Rate Control of Stroke Volume 12B.5. Measurement of Cardiac Function. Section C The Vascular System 12C.1. Arteries Arterial Blood Pressure Measurement of Systemic Arterial Pressure 12C.2. Arterioles Local Controls Extrinsic Controls Endothelial Cells and Vascular Smooth Muscle Arteriolar Control in Specific Organs 12C.3. Capillaries Anatomy of the Capillary Network Velocity of Capillary Blood Flow Diffusion Across the Capillary Wall: Exchanges of Nutrients and Metabolic End Products Bulk Flow Across the Capillary Wall: Distribution of the Extracellular Fluid 12C.4. Veins Determinants of Venous Pressure 12C.5. The Lymphatic System Mechanism of Lymph Flow Section D Integration of Cardiovascular Function: Regulation of Systemic Arterial Pressure 12D.1. Baroreceptor Reflexes Arterial Baroreceptors The Medullary Cardiovascular Center Operation of the Arterial Baroreceptor Reflex Other Baroreceptors 12D.2. Blood Volume and Long-Term Regulation of Arterial Pressure 12D.3. Other Cardiovascular Reflexes and Responses Section E Cardiovascular Patterns in Health and Disease. 12E.1. Hemorrhage and Other Causes of Hypotension Shock 12E.2. The Upright Posture 12E.3. Exercise Maximal Oxygen Consumption and Training 12E.4. Hypertension 12E.5. Heart Failure 12E.6. Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy 12E.7. Coronary Artery Disease and Heart Attacks Section F Blood and Hemostasis 12F.1. Plasma 12F.2. The Blood Cells Erythrocytes Leukocytes Platelets Regulation of Blood Cell Production 12F.3. Hemostasis: The Prevention of Blood Loss Formation of a Platelet Plug Blood Coagulation: Clot Formation Anticlotting Systems Anticlotting Drugs Chapter. 12 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 13 Respiratory Physiology 13.1. Organization of the Respiratory System The Airways and Blood Vessels Site of Gas Exchange: The Alveoli Relation of the Lungs to the Thoracic (Chest) Wall 13.2. Ventilation and Lung Mechanics How is a Stable Balance Achieved Between Breaths? Inspiration Expiration Lung Compliance Airway Resistance Lung Volumes and Capacities Alveolar Ventilation. 13.3. Exchange of Gases in Alveoli and Tissues Partial Pressures of Gases Alveolar Gas Pressures Gas Exchange Between Alveoli and Blood Matching of Ventilation and Blood Flow in Alveoli Gas Exchange Between Tissues and Blood 13.4. Transport of Oxygen in Blood What is the Effect of Po2 on Hemoglobin Saturation? Effects of Blood Pco2' H+ Concentration, Temperature, and DPG Concentration on Hemoglobin Saturation 13.5. Transport of Carbon Dioxide in Blood 13.6. Transport of Hydrogen Ion Between Tissues and Lungs 13.7. Control of Respiration Neural Generation of Rhythmic Breathing Control of Ventilation by Po2' Pco2, and H+ Concentration Control of Ventilation During Exercise Other Ventilatory Responses 13.8. Hypoxia Why Do Ventilation-Perfusion Abnormalities Affect O2 More Than CO2? Emphysema Acclimatization to High Altitude 13.9. Nonrespiratory Functions of the Lungs Chapter. 13 Clinical Cast Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 14 The Kidneys and Regulation of Water and Inorganic Ions Section A Basic Principles of Renal Physiology. 14A.1. Renal Functions 14A.2. Structure of the Kidneys and Urinary System 14A.3. Basic Renal Processes Glomerular Filtration Tubular Reabsorption Tubular Secretion Metabolism by the Tubules Regulation of Membrane Channels and Transporters "Division of Labor" in the Tubules 14A.4. The Concept of Renal Clearance 14A.5. Micturition Incontinence Section B Regulation of Ion and Water Balance 14B.1. Total-Body Balance of Sodium and Water 14B.2. Basic Renal Processes for Sodium and Water Primary Active Na+ Reabsorption Coupling of Water Reabsorption to Na+ Resbsorption Urine Concentration: The Countercurrent Multiplier System 14B.3. Renal Sodium Regulation Control of GFR Control of Na+ Reabsorption 14B.4. Renal Water Regulation Osmoreceptor Control of Vasopressin Secretion Baroreceptor Control of Vasopressin Secretion 14B.5. A Summary Example: The Response to Sweating 14B.6. Thirst and Salt Appetite 14B.7. Potassium Regulation Renal Regulation of K+ 14B.8. Renal Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Ion. 14B.9. Summary Division of Labor 14B.10. Diuretics Section C Hydrogen Ion Regulation 14C.1. Sources of Hydrogen Ion Gain or Loss 14C.2. Buffering of Hydrogen Ion in the Body 14C.3. Integration of Homeostatic Controls 14C.4. Renal Mechanisms HCO3 Handling Addition of New HCO3 to the Plasma Renal Responses to Acidosis and Alkalosis 14C.5. Classification of Acidosis and Alkalosis Chapter. 14 Clinical Case Study -- Hemodialysis, Peritoneal Dialysis, and Transplantation Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 15 The Digestion and Absorption of Food 15.1. Overview: Functions of the Gastrointestinal Organs 15.2. Structure of the Gastrointestinal Tract Wall 15.3. Digestion and Absorption Carbohydrate Protein Fats Vitamins Water and Minerals 15.4. How Are Gastrointestinal Processes Regulated? Basic Principles Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus Stomach Pancreatic Secretions Bile Secretion and Liver Function Small Intestine Large Intestine. 15.5. Pathophysiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract Ulcers Vomiting Gallstones Lactose Intolerance Constipation and Diarrhea Chapter. 15 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 16 Regulation of Organic Metabolism and Energy Balance Section A Control and Integration of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat Metabolism 16A.1. Events of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States Absorptive State Postabsorptive State. Note continued: 16A.2. Endocrine and Neural Control of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States Insulin Glucagon Epinephrine and Sympathetic Nerves to Liver and Adipose Tissue Cortisol Growth Hormone Summary of Hormonal Controls Hypoglycemia 16A.3. Energy Homeostasis in Exercise and Stress Section B Regulation of Total-Body Energy Balance and Temperature 16B.1. Basic Concepts of Energy Expenditure Metabolic Rate 16B.2. Regulation of Total-Body Energy Stores Control of Food Intake Overweight and Obesity Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa What Should We Eat? 16B.3. Regulation of Body Temperature Mechanisms of Heat Loss or Gain Temperature-Regulating Reflexes Temperature Acclimatization 16B.4. Fever and Hyperthermia Chapter. 16 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries. Chapter. 17 Reproduction Section A Overview of Terminology and General Principles Section B Gametogenesis, Sex Determination, and Sex Differentiation 17B.1. Gametogenesis 17B.2. Sex Determination 17B.3. Sex Differentiation Differentiation of the Gonads Differentiation of Internal and External Genitalia 17B.4. Sexual Differentiation of the Central Nervous System and Homosexuality Section C Male Reproductive Physiology 17C.1. Anatomy 17C.2. Spermatogenesis 17C.3. Transport of Sperm Erection Ejaculation 17C.4. Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive Functions Control of the Testes Testosterone 17C.5. Puberty Secondary Sex Characteristics and Growth Behavior 17C.6. Hypogonadism 17C.7. Andropause Section D Female Reproductive Physiology 17D.1. Anatomy 17D.2. Ovarian Functions Oogenesis Follicle Growth Formation of the Corpus Luteum Sites of Synthesis of Ovarian Hormones. 17D.3. Control of Ovarian Function Follicle Development and Estrogen Synthesis During the Early and Middle Follicular Phases LH Surge and Ovulation The Luteal Phase 17D.4. Uterine Changes in the Menstrual Cycle 17D.5. Other Effects of Estrogen and Progesterone 17D.6. Androgens in Women 17D.7. Puberty 17D.8. Female Sexual Response 17D.9. Pregnancy Egg Transport Intercourse, Sperm Transport, and Capacitation Fertilization Early Development, Implantation, and Placentation Hormonal and Other Changes During Pregnancy Parturition Lactation Contraception Infertility 17D.10. Menopause Chapter. 17 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 18 The Immune System 18.1. Cells and Secretions Mediating Immune Defenses Immune Cells Cytokines 18.2. Innate Immune Responses Defenses at Body Surfaces Inflammation Interferons Toll-Like Receptors. 18.3. Adaptive Immune Responses Overview Lymphoid Organs and Lymphocyte Origins Functions of B Cells and T Cells Lymphocyte Receptors Antigen Presentation to T Cells NK Cells Development of Immune Tolerance Antibody-Mediated Immune Responses: Defenses Against Bacteria, Extracellular Viruses, and Toxins Defenses Against Virus-Infected Cells and Cancer Cells 18.4. Systemic Manifestations of Infection 18.5. Factors That Alter the Resistance to Infection Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) Antibiotics 18.6. Harmful Immune Responses Graft Rejection Transfusion Reactions Allergy (Hypersensitivity) Autoimmune Disease Excessive Inflammatory Responses Chapter. 18 Clinical Case Study Test Questions Quantitative and Thought Questions Answers to Physiological Inquiries Chapter. 19 Medical Physiology: Integration Using Clinical Cases Case 19-1 A Woman with Palpitations and Heat Intolerance 19-1.1. Case Presentation -- 19-1.2. Physical Examination. 19-1.3. Laboratory Tests 19-1.4. Diagnosis 19-1.5. Physiological Integration 19-1.6. Therapy Case 19-2 A Man with Chest Pain After a Long Airplane Flight 19-2.1. Case Presentation 19-2.2. Physical Examination 19-2.3. Laboratory Tests 19-2.4. Diagnosis 19-2.5. Physiological Integration 19-2.6. Therapy Case 19-3 A Man with Abdominal Pain, Fever, and Circulatory Failure 19-3.1. Case Presentation 19-3.2. Physical Examination 19-3.3. Laboratory Tests 19-3.4. Diagnosis 19-3.5. Physiological Integration 19-3.6. Therapy Case 19-4 A College Student with Nausea, Flushing, and Sweating 19-4.1. Case Presentation 19-4.2. Physical Examination 19-4.3. Laboratory Tests 19-4.4. Diagnosis 19-4.5. Physiological Integration 19-4.6. Therapy.
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Book Open Access Book Open Access Health Sciences Library QT 104 W641v 2008 (Browse shelf(Opens below)) 1 Available MBAL22030749

Includes index.

Contents

Chapter. 1 Homeostasis: A Framework for Human Physiology
1.1. The Scope of Human Physiology
1.2. How Is the Body Organized?
Muscle Cells and Tissue
Neurons and Nervous Tissue
Epithelial Cells and Epithelial Tissue
Connective-Tissue Cells and Connective Tissue
Organs and Organ Systems
1.3. Body Fluid Compartments
1.4. Homeostasis: A Defining Feature of Physiology
1.5. General Characteristics of Homeostatic Control Systems
Feedback Systems
Resetting of Set Points
Feedforward Regulation
1.6. Components of Homeostatic Control Systems
Reflexes
Local Homeostatic Responses
1.7. Intercellular Chemical Messengers
1.8. Processes Related to Homeostasis
Adaptation and Acclimatization
Biological Rhythms
Balance in the Homeostasis of Chemical Substances in the Body
Chapter. 1 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 2 Chemical Composition of the Body.
2.1. Atoms
Components of Atoms
Atomic Number
Atomic Weight
Ions
Atomic Composition of the Body
2.2. Molecules
Covalent Chemical Bonds
Hydrogen Bonds
Molecular Shape
Ionic Molecules
Free Radicals
2.3. Solutions
Water
Molecular Solubility
Concentration
Hydrogen Ions and Acidity
2.4. Classes of Organic Molecules
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids
ATP
Chapter. 2 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 3 Cellular Structure, Proteins, and Metabolism
Section A Cell Structure
3A.1. Microscopic Observations of Cells
3A.2. Membranes
Membrane Structure
Membrane Junctions
3A.3. Cell Organelles
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Endosomes
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Vaults
Cytoskeleton
Section B Proteins
3B.1. Genetic Code
3B.2. Protein Synthesis
Transcription: mRNA Synthesis
Translation: Polypeptide Synthesis
Regulation of Protein Synthesis
Mutation.
3B.3. Protein Degradation
3B.4. Protein Secretion
Section C Protein-Binding Sites
3C.1. Binding Site Characteristics
Chemical Specificity
Affinity
Saturation
Competition
3C.2. Regulation of Binding Site Characteristics
Allosteric Modulation
Covalent Modulation
Section D Enzymes and Chemical Energy
3D.1. Chemical Reactions
Determinants of Reaction Rates
Reversible and Irreversible Reactions
Law of Mass Action
3D.2. Enzymes
Cofactors
3D.3. Regulation of Enzyme-Mediated Reactions
Substrate Concentration
Enzyme Concentration
Enzyme Activity
3D.4. Multienzyme Reactions
Section E Metabolic Pathways
3E.1. Cellular Energy Transfer
Glycolysis
Krebs Cycle
Oxidative Phosphorylation
3E.2. Carbohydrate, Fat, and Protein Metabolism
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Fat Metabolism
Protein and Amino Acid Metabolism
Metabolism Summary
3E.3. Essential Nutrients
Vitamins
Chapter. 3 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries.

Chapter. 4 Movement of Molecules Across Cell Membranes
4.1. Diffusion
Magnitude and Direction of Diffusion
Diffusion Rate Versus Distance
Diffusion Through Membranes
4.2. Mediated-Transport Systems
Facilitated Diffusion
Active Transport
4.3. Osmosis
Extracellular Osmolarity and Cell Volume
4.4. Endocytosis and Exocytosis
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
4.5. Epithelial Transport
Chapter. 4 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 5 Control of Cells by Chemical Messengers
5.1. Receptors
Regulation of Receptors
5.2. Signal Transduction Pathways
Pathways Initiated by Lipid-Soluble Messengers
Pathways Initiated by Water-Soluble Messengers
Plasma Membrane Receptors and Gene Transcription
Cessation of Activity in Signal Transduction Pathways
Chapter. 5 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 6 Neuronal Signaling and the Structure of the Nervous System
Section A Neural Tissue. 6A.1. Structure and Maintenance of Neurons
6A.2. Functional Classes of Neurons
6A.3. Glial Cells
6A.4. Neural Growth and Regeneration
Section B Membrane Potentials
6B.1. Basic Principles of Electricity
6B.2. The Resting Membrane Potential
6B.3. Graded Potentials and Action Potentials
Graded Potentials
Action Potentials
Section C Synapses
6C.1. Functional Anatomy of Synapses
6C.2. Mechanisms of Neurotransmitter Release
6C.3. Activation of the Postsynaptic Cell
Excitatory Chemical Synapses
Inhibitory Chemical Synapses
6C.4. Synaptic Integration
6C.5. Synaptic Strength
Modification of Synaptic Transmission by Drugs and Disease
6C.6. Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators
Acetylcholine
Biogenic Amines
Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
Neuropeptides
Gases
Purines
6C.7. Neuroeffector Communication
Section D Structure of the Nervous System
6D.1. Central Nervous System: Brain
Forebrain
Cerebellum
Brainstem
6D.2. Central Nervous System: Spinal Cord.
6D.3. Peripheral Nervous System
6D.4. Autonomic Nervous System
6D.5. Blood Supply, Blood-Brain Barrier, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Chapter. 6 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 7 Sensory Physiology
Section A General Principles
7A.1. Sensory Receptors
The Receptor Potential
7A.2. Primary Sensory Coding
Stimulus Type
Stimulus Intensity
Stimulus Location
Central Control of Afferent Information
7A.3. Ascending Neural Pathways in Sensory Systems
7A.4. Association Cortex and Perceptual Processing
Factors That Affect Perception
Section B Specific Sensory Systems
7B.1. Somatic Sensation
Touch and Pressure
Sense of Posture and Movement
Temperature
Pain
Neural Pathways of the Somatosensory System
7B.2. Vision
Light
Overview of Eye Anatomy
The Optics of Vision
Photoreceptor Cells and Phototransduction
Neural Pathways of Vision
Color Vision
Color Blindness
Eye Movement.
7B.3. Hearing
Sound
Sound Transmission in the Ear
Hair Cells of the Organ of Corti
Neural Pathways in Hearing
7B.4. Vestibular System
The Semicircular Canals
The Utricle and Saccule
Vestibular Information and Pathways
7B.5. Chemical Senses
Taste
Smell
Chapter. 7 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 8 Consciousness, the Brain, and Behavior
8.1. States of Consciousness
Electroencephalogram
The Waking State
Sleep
Neural Substrates of States of Consciousness
Coma and Brain Death
8.2. Conscious Experiences
Selective Attention
Neural Mechanisms of Conscious Experiences
8.3. Motivation and Emotion
Motivation
Emotion
8.4. Altered States of Consciousness
Schizophrenia
The Mood Disorders: Depressions and Bipolar Disorders
Psychoactive Substances, Dependences, and Tolerance
8.5. Learning and Memory
Memory
The Neural Basis of Learning and Memory
8.6. Cerebral Dominance and Language.
Chapter. 8 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 9 Muscle
Section A Skeletal Muscle
9A.1. Structure
9A.2. Molecular Mechanisms of Skeletal Muscle Contraction
Sliding-Filament Mechanism
Roles of Troponin, Tropomyosin, and Ca2+ in Contraction
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Membrane Excitation: The Neuromuscular Junction
9A.3. Mechanics of Single-Fiber Contraction
Twitch Contractions
Load-Velocity Relation
Frequency-Tension Relation
Length-Tension Relation
9A.4. Skeletal Muscle Energy Metabolism
Muscle Fatigue
9A.5. Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers
9A.6. Whole-Muscle Contraction
Control of Muscle Tension
Control of Shortening Velocity
Muscle Adaptation to Exercise
Lever Action of Muscles and Bones
9A.7. Skeletal Muscle Disorders
Muscle Cramps
Hypocalcemic Tetany
Muscular Dystrophy
Myasthenia Gravis
Section B Smooth and Cardiac Muscle
9B.1. Structure of Smooth Muscle. 9B.2. Smooth Muscle Contraction and Its Control
Cross-Bridge Activation
Sources of Cytosolic Ca2+
Membrane Activation
Types of Smooth Muscle
9B.3. Cardiac Muscle
Cellular Structure of Cardiac Muscle
Excitation-Contraction Coupling in Cardiac Muscle
Chapter. 9 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 10 Control of Body Movement
10.1. Motor Control Hierarchy
Voluntary and Involuntary Actions
10.2. Local Control of Motor Neurons
Interneurons
Local Afferent Input
10.3. The Brain Motor Centers and the Descending Pathways They Control
Cerebral Cortex
Subcortical and Brainstem Nuclei
Cerebellum
Descending Pathways. Note continued: 10.4. Muscle Tone
Abnormal Muscle Tone
10.5. Maintenance of Upright Posture and Balance
10.6. Walking
Chapter. 10 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 11 The Endocrine System
Section A Principles of Hormonal Control Systems
11A.1. Hormone Structures and Synthesis
Amine Hormones
Peptide and Protein Hormones
Steroid Hormones
11A.2. Hormone Transport in the Blood
11A.3. Hormone Metabolism and Excretion
11A.4. Mechanisms of Hormone Action
Hormone Receptors
Events Elicited by Hormone-Receptor Binding
Pharmacological Effects of Hormones
11A.5. Inputs That Control Hormone Secretion
Control by Plasma Concentrations of Mineral Ions or Organic Nutrients
Control by Neurons
Control by Other Hormones
11A.6. Types of Endocrine Disorders
Hyposecretion
Hypersecretion
Hyporesponsiveness and Hyperresponsiveness.

Section B The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
11B.1. Control Systems Involving the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Posterior Pituitary Gland Hormones
Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones and the Hypothalamus

Section C The Thyroid Gland
11C.1. Synthesis of Thyroid Hormones
11C.2. Control of Thyroid Function
11C.3. Actions of Thyroid Hormones
Metabolic Actions
Permissive Actions
Growth and Development
11C.4. Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism

Section D The Endocrine Response to Stress
11D.1. Physiological Functions of Cortisol
11D.2. Functions of Cortisol in Stress
11D.3. Adrenal Insufficiency and Cushing's Syndrome
11D.4. Other Hormones Released During Stress
11D.5. Psychological Stress and Disease

Section E Endocrine Control of Growth
11E.1. Bone Growth
11E.2. Environmental Factors Influencing Growth
11E.3. Hormonal Influences on Growth
Growth Hormone and Insulin-Like Growth Factors
Thyroid Hormones
Insulin
Sex Hormones
Cortisol
Section F Endocrine Control of Ca2+ Homeostasis.
11F.1. Effector Sites for Ca2+ Homeostasis
Bone
Kidneys
Gastrointestinal Tract
11F.2. Hormonal Controls
Parathyroid Hormone
1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D
Calcitonin
11F.3. Metabolic Bone Diseases
Hypercalcemia
Hypocalcemia

Chapter. 11 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 12 Cardiovascular Physiology
Section A Overall Design of the Circulatory System
12A.1. System Overview
12A.2. Pressure, Flow, and Resistance
Section B The Heart
12B.1. Anatomy
Cardiac Muscle
12B.2. Heartbeat Coordination
Sequence of Excitation
Cardiac Action Potentials and Excitation of the SA Node
The Electrocardiogram
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Refractory Period of the Heart
12B.3. Mechanical Events of the Cardiac Cycle
Mid-Diastole to Late Diastole
Systole
Early Diastole
Pulmonary Circulation Pressures
Heart Sounds
12B.4. The Cardiac Output
Control of Heart Rate
Control of Stroke Volume
12B.5. Measurement of Cardiac Function.
Section C The Vascular System
12C.1. Arteries
Arterial Blood Pressure
Measurement of Systemic Arterial Pressure
12C.2. Arterioles
Local Controls
Extrinsic Controls
Endothelial Cells and Vascular Smooth Muscle

Arteriolar Control in Specific Organs
12C.3. Capillaries
Anatomy of the Capillary Network
Velocity of Capillary Blood Flow
Diffusion Across the Capillary Wall: Exchanges of Nutrients and Metabolic End Products
Bulk Flow Across the Capillary Wall: Distribution of the Extracellular Fluid
12C.4. Veins
Determinants of Venous Pressure
12C.5. The Lymphatic System
Mechanism of Lymph Flow
Section D Integration of Cardiovascular Function: Regulation of Systemic Arterial Pressure
12D.1. Baroreceptor Reflexes
Arterial Baroreceptors
The Medullary Cardiovascular Center
Operation of the Arterial Baroreceptor Reflex
Other Baroreceptors
12D.2. Blood Volume and Long-Term Regulation of Arterial Pressure
12D.3. Other Cardiovascular Reflexes and Responses
Section E Cardiovascular Patterns in Health and Disease.
12E.1. Hemorrhage and Other Causes of Hypotension
Shock
12E.2. The Upright Posture
12E.3. Exercise
Maximal Oxygen Consumption and Training
12E.4. Hypertension
12E.5. Heart Failure
12E.6. Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
12E.7. Coronary Artery Disease and Heart Attacks
Section F Blood and Hemostasis
12F.1. Plasma
12F.2. The Blood Cells
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Platelets
Regulation of Blood Cell Production
12F.3. Hemostasis: The Prevention of Blood Loss
Formation of a Platelet Plug
Blood Coagulation: Clot Formation
Anticlotting Systems
Anticlotting Drugs
Chapter. 12 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 13 Respiratory Physiology
13.1. Organization of the Respiratory System
The Airways and Blood Vessels
Site of Gas Exchange: The Alveoli
Relation of the Lungs to the Thoracic (Chest) Wall
13.2. Ventilation and Lung Mechanics
How is a Stable Balance Achieved Between Breaths?
Inspiration
Expiration
Lung Compliance
Airway Resistance
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Alveolar Ventilation.
13.3. Exchange of Gases in Alveoli and Tissues
Partial Pressures of Gases
Alveolar Gas Pressures
Gas Exchange Between Alveoli and Blood
Matching of Ventilation and Blood Flow in Alveoli
Gas Exchange Between Tissues and Blood
13.4. Transport of Oxygen in Blood
What is the Effect of Po2 on Hemoglobin Saturation?
Effects of Blood Pco2' H+ Concentration, Temperature, and DPG Concentration on Hemoglobin Saturation
13.5. Transport of Carbon Dioxide in Blood
13.6. Transport of Hydrogen Ion Between Tissues and Lungs
13.7. Control of Respiration
Neural Generation of Rhythmic Breathing
Control of Ventilation by Po2' Pco2, and H+ Concentration
Control of Ventilation During Exercise
Other Ventilatory Responses
13.8. Hypoxia
Why Do Ventilation-Perfusion Abnormalities Affect O2 More Than CO2?
Emphysema
Acclimatization to High Altitude
13.9. Nonrespiratory Functions of the Lungs
Chapter. 13 Clinical Cast Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 14 The Kidneys and Regulation of Water and Inorganic Ions
Section A Basic Principles of Renal Physiology.
14A.1. Renal Functions
14A.2. Structure of the Kidneys and Urinary System
14A.3. Basic Renal Processes
Glomerular Filtration
Tubular Reabsorption
Tubular Secretion
Metabolism by the Tubules
Regulation of Membrane Channels and Transporters
"Division of Labor" in the Tubules
14A.4. The Concept of Renal Clearance
14A.5. Micturition
Incontinence
Section B Regulation of Ion and Water Balance
14B.1. Total-Body Balance of Sodium and Water
14B.2. Basic Renal Processes for Sodium and Water
Primary Active Na+ Reabsorption
Coupling of Water Reabsorption to Na+ Resbsorption
Urine Concentration: The Countercurrent Multiplier System
14B.3. Renal Sodium Regulation
Control of GFR
Control of Na+ Reabsorption
14B.4. Renal Water Regulation
Osmoreceptor Control of Vasopressin Secretion
Baroreceptor Control of Vasopressin Secretion
14B.5. A Summary Example: The Response to Sweating
14B.6. Thirst and Salt Appetite
14B.7. Potassium Regulation
Renal Regulation of K+
14B.8. Renal Regulation of Calcium and Phosphate Ion.
14B.9. Summary
Division of Labor
14B.10. Diuretics
Section C Hydrogen Ion Regulation
14C.1. Sources of Hydrogen Ion Gain or Loss
14C.2. Buffering of Hydrogen Ion in the Body
14C.3. Integration of Homeostatic Controls
14C.4. Renal Mechanisms
HCO3
Handling
Addition of New HCO3
to the Plasma
Renal Responses to Acidosis and Alkalosis
14C.5. Classification of Acidosis and Alkalosis

Chapter. 14 Clinical Case Study --
Hemodialysis, Peritoneal Dialysis, and Transplantation
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 15 The Digestion and Absorption of Food
15.1. Overview: Functions of the Gastrointestinal Organs
15.2. Structure of the Gastrointestinal Tract Wall
15.3. Digestion and Absorption
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fats
Vitamins
Water and Minerals
15.4. How Are Gastrointestinal Processes Regulated?
Basic Principles
Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus
Stomach
Pancreatic Secretions
Bile Secretion and Liver Function
Small Intestine
Large Intestine.
15.5. Pathophysiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract
Ulcers
Vomiting
Gallstones
Lactose Intolerance
Constipation and Diarrhea
Chapter. 15 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 16 Regulation of Organic Metabolism and Energy Balance
Section A Control and Integration of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat Metabolism
16A.1. Events of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States
Absorptive State
Postabsorptive State. Note continued:
16A.2. Endocrine and Neural Control of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States
Insulin
Glucagon
Epinephrine and Sympathetic Nerves to Liver and Adipose Tissue
Cortisol
Growth Hormone
Summary of Hormonal Controls
Hypoglycemia
16A.3. Energy Homeostasis in Exercise and Stress
Section B Regulation of Total-Body Energy Balance and Temperature
16B.1. Basic Concepts of Energy Expenditure
Metabolic Rate
16B.2. Regulation of Total-Body Energy Stores
Control of Food Intake
Overweight and Obesity
Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
What Should We Eat?
16B.3. Regulation of Body Temperature
Mechanisms of Heat Loss or Gain
Temperature-Regulating Reflexes
Temperature Acclimatization
16B.4. Fever and Hyperthermia
Chapter. 16 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries.

Chapter. 17 Reproduction
Section A Overview of Terminology and General Principles
Section B Gametogenesis, Sex Determination, and Sex Differentiation
17B.1. Gametogenesis
17B.2. Sex Determination
17B.3. Sex Differentiation
Differentiation of the Gonads
Differentiation of Internal and External Genitalia
17B.4. Sexual Differentiation of the Central Nervous System and Homosexuality
Section C Male Reproductive Physiology
17C.1. Anatomy
17C.2. Spermatogenesis
17C.3. Transport of Sperm
Erection
Ejaculation
17C.4. Hormonal Control of Male Reproductive Functions
Control of the Testes
Testosterone
17C.5. Puberty
Secondary Sex Characteristics and Growth
Behavior
17C.6. Hypogonadism
17C.7. Andropause
Section D Female Reproductive Physiology
17D.1. Anatomy
17D.2. Ovarian Functions
Oogenesis
Follicle Growth
Formation of the Corpus Luteum
Sites of Synthesis of Ovarian Hormones.
17D.3. Control of Ovarian Function
Follicle Development and Estrogen Synthesis During the Early and Middle Follicular Phases
LH Surge and Ovulation
The Luteal Phase
17D.4. Uterine Changes in the Menstrual Cycle
17D.5. Other Effects of Estrogen and Progesterone
17D.6. Androgens in Women
17D.7. Puberty
17D.8. Female Sexual Response
17D.9. Pregnancy
Egg Transport
Intercourse, Sperm Transport, and Capacitation
Fertilization
Early Development, Implantation, and Placentation
Hormonal and Other Changes During Pregnancy
Parturition
Lactation
Contraception
Infertility
17D.10. Menopause
Chapter. 17 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 18 The Immune System
18.1. Cells and Secretions Mediating Immune Defenses
Immune Cells
Cytokines
18.2. Innate Immune Responses
Defenses at Body Surfaces
Inflammation
Interferons
Toll-Like Receptors.
18.3. Adaptive Immune Responses
Overview
Lymphoid Organs and Lymphocyte Origins
Functions of B Cells and T Cells
Lymphocyte Receptors
Antigen Presentation to T Cells
NK Cells
Development of Immune Tolerance
Antibody-Mediated Immune Responses: Defenses Against Bacteria, Extracellular Viruses, and Toxins
Defenses Against Virus-Infected Cells and Cancer Cells
18.4. Systemic Manifestations of Infection
18.5. Factors That Alter the Resistance to Infection
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Antibiotics
18.6. Harmful Immune Responses
Graft Rejection
Transfusion Reactions
Allergy (Hypersensitivity)
Autoimmune Disease
Excessive Inflammatory Responses
Chapter. 18 Clinical Case Study
Test Questions
Quantitative and Thought Questions
Answers to Physiological Inquiries

Chapter. 19 Medical Physiology: Integration Using Clinical Cases
Case 19-1 A Woman with Palpitations and Heat Intolerance
19-1.1. Case Presentation --
19-1.2. Physical Examination.
19-1.3. Laboratory Tests
19-1.4. Diagnosis
19-1.5. Physiological Integration
19-1.6. Therapy
Case 19-2 A Man with Chest Pain After a Long Airplane Flight
19-2.1. Case Presentation
19-2.2. Physical Examination
19-2.3. Laboratory Tests
19-2.4. Diagnosis
19-2.5. Physiological Integration
19-2.6. Therapy
Case 19-3 A Man with Abdominal Pain, Fever, and Circulatory Failure
19-3.1. Case Presentation
19-3.2. Physical Examination
19-3.3. Laboratory Tests
19-3.4. Diagnosis
19-3.5. Physiological Integration
19-3.6. Therapy
Case 19-4 A College Student with Nausea, Flushing, and Sweating
19-4.1. Case Presentation
19-4.2. Physical Examination
19-4.3. Laboratory Tests
19-4.4. Diagnosis
19-4.5. Physiological Integration
19-4.6. Therapy.

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