Human geography : landscapes of human activities / Jerome D. Fellmann, Arthur Getis, Judith Getis ; with contributions by Michael J. Hawkins and Christopher A. Airriess.

CONTENT

C H A P T E R
One
Introduction:
Some Background Basics 3
Focus Preview 3
Getting Started 4
Evolution of the Discipline 4
Geography and Human Geography 6
Human Geography 7
Background Basics 7
Core Geographic Concepts 7
Location, Direction, and Distance 9
Location 9
Direction 11
Distance 12
Size and Scale 12
Physical and Cultural Attributes 13
The Changing Attributes of Place 14
Interrelations between Places 15
The Structured Content of Place 16
Density 16
Dispersion 17
Pattern 17
Place Similarity and Regions 17
Types of Regions 18
Maps 20
Map Scale 20
The Globe Grid 20
How Maps Show Data 21
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 22
Mental Maps 26
Systems, Maps, and Models 27
The Structure of This Book 29
Summary 29
Key Words 30
For Review 30
Focus Follow-up 30
Selected References 31
PART One
Themes and Fundamentals of Human Geography 32

C H A P T E R
Two
Roots and Meaning of Culture 35
Focus Preview 35
Components of Culture 36
Interaction of People and Environment 39
Environments as Controls 39
Human Impacts 40
Roots of Culture 42
Seeds of Change 44
Agricultural Origins and Spread 46
Neolithic Innovations 47
Culture Hearths 48
The Structure of Culture 51
Culture Change 52
Innovation 52
Diffusion 55
Acculturation and Cultural Modification 57
Contact between Regions 58
Summary 60
Key Words 61
For Review 61
Focus Follow-up 61
Selected References 62

C H A P T E R
Three
Spatial Interaction and Spatial Behavior 65
Focus Preview 65
Bases for Interaction 66
A Summarizing Model 67
Complementarity 67
Transferability 67
Intervening Opportunity 68
Measuring Interaction 68
Distance Decay 68
The Gravity Concept 69
Interaction Potential 70
Movement Biases 70
Human Spatial Behavior 71
Individual Activity Space 72
The Tyranny of Time 74
Distance and Human Interaction 74
Spatial Interaction and the Accumulation of Information 75
Information Flows 76
Information and Perception 78
Perception of Environment 78
Perception of Natural Hazards 81
Migration 84
Principal Migration Patterns 84
Types of Migration 86
Controls on Migration 88
Summary 95
Key Words 96
For Review 96
Focus Follow-up 96
Selected References 97

C H A P T E R
Four
Population: World Patterns, Regional Trends 101
Focus Preview 101
Population Growth 102
Some Population Definitions 104
Birth Rates 104
Fertility Rates 107
Death Rates 108
Population Pyramids 112
Natural Increase 114
Doubling Times 114
The Demographic Transition 118
The Western Experience 119
A Divided World Converging 120
The Demographic Equation 122
Population Relocation 124
Immigration Impacts 124
World Population Distribution 125
Population Density 127
Overpopulation 129
Urbanization 130
Population Data and Projections 130
Population Data 130
Population Projections 132
Population Controls 133
Population Prospects 135
Momentum 135
Aging 135
Summary 136
Key Words 137
For Review 137
Focus Follow-up 137
Selected References 138

PART Two
Patterns of Diversity and Unity 140

C H A P T E R
Five
Language and Religion: Mosaics of Culture 143
Focus Preview 143
The Geography of Language 145
Classification of Languages 145
World Pattern of Languages 147
Language Spread 151
Language Change 152
The Story of English 153
Standard and Variant Languages 154
Standard Language 154
Dialects 155
Dialects in America 156
Pidgins and Creoles 158
Lingua Franca 159
Official Languages 160
Language, Territoriality, and Identity 161
Language on the Landscape: Toponymy 162
Patterns of Religion 165
Religion and Culture 166
Classification of Religion 166
Patterns and Flows 167
The World Pattern 167
The Principal Religions 169
Judaism 169
Christianity 170
Regions and Landscapes of Christianity 172
Islam 176
Hinduism 178
Buddhism 180
East Asian Ethnic Religions 182
Summary 184
Key Words 184
For Review 185
Focus Follow-up 185
Selected References 186

C H A P T E R
Six
Ethnic Geography: Threads of Diversity 189
Focus Preview 189
Ethnic Diversity and Separatism 191
Immigration Streams 193
Acculturation and Assimilation 196
Areal Expressions of Ethnicity 198
Charter Cultures 200
Ethnic Clusters 201
Black Dispersions 203
Hispanic Concentrations 205
Asian Contrasts 207
Immigrant Gateways and Clusters 208
French Uniformity 208
Urban Ethnic Diversity
and Segregation 209
External Controls 211
Internal Controls 211
Shifting Ethnic Concentrations 212
Typologies and Spatial Results 214
Native-Born Dispersals 215
Cultural Transfer 216
The Ethnic Landscape 218
Land Survey 219
Settlement Patterns 220
Ethnic Regionalism 221
Summary 224
Key Words 224
For Review 225
Focus Follow-up 225
Selected References 225

C H A P T E R
Seven
Folk and Popular Culture: Diversity and Uniformity 229
Focus Preview 229
Folk Cultural Diversity and Regionalism 230
Anglo American Hearths 232
Folk Building Traditions 234
The Northern Hearths 236
The Lower St. Lawrence Valley 236
Southern New England 237
The Hudson Valley 238
The Middle Atlantic Hearths 238
The Delaware Valley 238
Chesapeake Bay 238
The Southern Hearths 238
The Southern Tidewater 239
The Mississippi Delta 239
Interior and Western Hearths 239
Architectural Diffusions 240
Folk Fencing in Anglo America 241
Nonmaterial Folk Culture 242
Folk Food and Drink Preferences 244
Folk and Customary Foods 244
Drink 245
Folk Music 245
Folk Medicines and Cures 248
The Oral Folk Tradition 248
Folk Cultural Regions of Eastern United States 249
The Passing of Folk Cultural Regionalism 250
Patterns of Popular Culture 251
National Uniformities and Globalization 252
The Shopping Mall 255
Outside the Mall 256
Diffusion Tracks 257
Regional Emphasis 257
Vernacular Regions 257
Summary 258
Key Words 262
For Review 262
Focus Follow-up 263
Selected References 263
PART Three
Dynamic Patterns of the Space Economy 266

C H A P T E R
Eight
Livelihood and Economy: Primary Activities 269
Focus Preview 269
The Classification of Economic Activity and Economies 270
Categories of Activity 271
Types of Economic Systems 273
Primary Activities: Agriculture 273
Subsistence Agriculture 274
Extensive Subsistence Agriculture 276
Intensive Subsistence Systems 278
Urban Subsistence Farming 279
Costs of Territorial Extension 281
Intensification and the Green Revolution 282
Commercial Agriculture 285
Production Controls 285
A Model of Agricultural Location 286
Intensive Commercial Agriculture 288
Extensive Commercial Agriculture 288
Special Crops 292
Agriculture in Planned Economies 292
Primary Activities: Resource Exploitation 294
Resource Terminology 294
Fishing 295
Forestry 299
Fur Trapping and Trade 301
Mining and Quarrying 301
Metallic Minerals 302
Nonmetallic Minerals 302
Mineral Fuels 304
Trade in Primary Products 307
Summary 309
Key Words 310
For Review 310
Focus Follow-up 310
Selected References 311

C H A P T E R
Nine
Livelihood and Economy: From Blue Collar to Gold
Collar 315
Focus Preview 315
Components of the Space Economy 316
Concepts and Controls 317
Secondary Activities: Manufacturing 318
Locational Decisions in Manufacturing 318
Principles of Location 319
Raw Materials 319
Power Supply 320
Labor 320
Market 320
Transportation 322
Transportation and Location 323
Industrial Location Theories 324
Least-Cost Theory 325
Locational Interdependence Theory 326
Proft-Maximization Approaches 327
Other Locational Considerations and Controls 327
Agglomeration Economies 328
Just-in-Time and Flexible Production 328
Comparative Advantage 329
Imposed Considerations 331
Transnational Corporations 331
World Manufacturing Patterns and Trends 333
Anglo America 333
Western and Central Europe 336
Eastern Europe 337
Eastern Asia 338
High-Tech Patterns 340
Tertiary and Beyond 343
Tertiary Services 344
Beyond Tertiary 345
Services in World Trade 346
Summary 349
Key Words 349
For Review 350
Focus Follow-up 350
Selected References 351

C H A P T E R
Ten
Patterns of Development and Change 353
Focus Preview 353
Development as a Cultural Variable 355
Dividing the Continuum: Definitions of Development 355
Explanations of Underdevelopment 357
The Core-Periphery Argument 358
Economic Measures of Development 359
The Diffusion of Technology 362
The Complex of Development 363
Gross National Income and PPP per Capita 364
Energy Consumption per Capita 365
Percentage of the Workforce Engaged in Agriculture 366
Landlessness 366
Poverty, Calories, and Nutrition 367
Composite Assessment of Economic Development 370
A Model for Economic Development 370
Noneconomic Measures of Development 371
Education 371
Public Services 373
Health 374
Aggregate Measures of Development and Well-Being 377
The Role of Women 379
Summary 384
Key Words 384
For Review 385
Focus Follow-up 385
Selected References 386
PART Four
Landscapes of Functional Organization 388

C H A P T E R
Eleven
Urban Systems and Urban Structures 391
Focus Preview 391
The Urbanizing Century 392
Megacities and Merging Metropolises 392
Settlement Roots 397
The Nature of Cities 400
Some Definitions 400
The Location of Urban Settlements 401
The Functions of Cities 402
The Economic Base 402
Base Ratios 402
Systems of Urban Settlements 405
The Urban Hierarchy 405
Rank-Size and Primacy 406
World Cities 406
Urban Influence Zones 407
Central Places 407
Network Cities 410
Inside the City 411
The Competitive Bidding for Land 411
Land Values and Population Density 412
Models of Urban Land Use Structure 413
Social Areas of Cities 415
Social Status 416
Family Status 416
Ethnicity 417
Institutional Controls 418
Suburbanization in the United States 418
Central City Change 420
Constricted Central Cities 422
Expanding Central Cities 426
World Urban Diversity 427
The Anglo American City 427
The West European City 427
The East European City 430
Cities in the Developing World 431
The Asian City and African City 431
The Latin American City 435
Summary 437
Key Words 437
For Review 438
Focus Follow-up 438
Selected References 439

C H A P T E R
Twelve
The Political Ordering of Space 441
Focus Preview 441
National Political Systems 443
States, Nations, and Nation-States 443
The Evolution of the Modern State 445
Geographic Characteristics of States 446
Size 446
Shape 446
Location 448
Cores and Capitals 450
Boundaries: The Limits of the State 453
Natural and Geometric Boundaries 453
Boundaries Classified by Settlement 454
Boundary Disputes 454
Centripetal Forces: Promoting State Cohesion 456
Nationalism 456
Unifying Institutions 457
Organization and Administration 458
Transportation and Communication 459
Centrifugal Forces: Challenges to State
Authority 459
The Projection of Power 461
Geopolitical Assessments 461
International Political Systems 463
Supranationalism 463
The United Nations and Its Agencies 464
Maritime Boundaries 465
An International Law of the Sea 465
Regional Alliances 467
Economic Alliances 468
Military and Political Alliances 470
Local and Regional Political Organization 471
The Geography of Representation: The Districting Problem 471
The Fragmentation of Political Power 472
Summary 477
Key Words 478
For Review 478
Focus Follow-up 479
Selected References 479
PART Five
Human Actions and Environmental Impacts 480

C H A P T E R
Thirteen
Human Impacts on Natural Systems 483
Focus Preview 483
Physical Environments and Cultural Impacts 484
Climates, Biomes, and Change 485
Global Warming 488
Air Pollution and Acid Rain 493
The Trouble with Ozone 494
Land Use and Land Cover 496
Tropical Deforestation 496
Desertification 499
Soil Erosion 501
Water Supply and Water Quality 503
Patterns of Availability 505
Water Use and Abuse 506
Garbage Heaps and Toxic Wastes 508
Solid Wastes and Rubbish 508
Landfill Disposal 509
Incineration 510
Ocean Dumping 511
Toxic Wastes 512
Radioactive Wastes 512
Exporting Waste 514
Prospects and Perspectives 516

Includes bibliographical references and index.