Chemical engineering / by J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson.

Contents

Professor /. M. Coulson xiii
Preface to Sixth Edition xv
Preface to Fifth Edition xvii
Preface to Fourth Edition xix
Preface to Third Edition xxi
Preface to Second Edition xxiii
Preface to First Edition xxv
Acknowledgements xxvii

1. Units and Dimensions I
.,1 Introduction I

1.2 Systems of units 2
1.2.1 The centimetre-gram-second (cgs) system 2
1.2.2 The metre-kilogram-second 4
(inks system) and the Syst&me International d'Unites (SI)

.2.3 The foot-pound-second (fps) system 5
.2.4 The British engineering system 5
,2,5 Non-coherent 6
system employing pound mass and pound force simultaneously
.2.6 Derived units 6
.2.7 Thermal (heat) units 7
.2.8 Molar units 8
.2.9 Electrical units 8

1.3 Conversion of units 9
1.4 Dimensional analysis 12
1.5 Buckingham's Fl theorem 15
1.6 Redefinition of the length and mass dimensions 20
] .6.1 Vector and scalar quantities 20
1.6.2 Quantity mass and inertia mass 21
1.7 Further reading 22
1.8 References 22
1.9 Nomenclature 22

Part 1 Fluid Flow 25
2. Flow of Fluids—Energy and Momentum Relationships 2?
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Internal energy 27
V

VI CONTENTS
2.3 Types of fluid 30
2.3.1 The incompressible fluid (liquid) 31
2.3.2 The ideal gas 31
2.3.3 The non-ideal gas 34

2.4 The fluid in motion 39
2.4.1 Continuity 39
2.4.2 Momentum changes in a fluid 41
2.4.3 Energy of a fluid in motion 44
2.4.4 Pressure and fluid head 46
2.4.5 Constant flow per unit area 47
2.4.6 Separation 47
2.5 Pressure-volume relationships 48
2.5.1 Incompressible fluids 48
2.5.2 Compressible fluids 48
2.6 Rotational or vortex motion in a fluid 50
2.6.1 The forced vortex 52
2.6.2 The free vortex 54

2.7 Further reading 55

2.8 References 56

2.9 Nomenclature 56

3. Flow of Liquids in Pipes and Open Channels 58
3.1 Introduction 58
3:2 The nature of fluid flow 59
3.2.1 Flow over a surface 60
3.2.2 Flow in a pipe 61
3.3 Newtonian fluids 62
3.3.1 Shearing characteristics of a Newtonian fluid 62
3.3.2 Pressure drop for flow of Newtonian liquids through a pipe 63
3.3.3 Reynolds number and shear stress 74
3.3.4 Velocity distributions and volumetric flowrates for streamline flow 75
3.3.5 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe 82
3.3.6 Velocity distributions and volumetric flowrates for turbulent flow 83
3.3.7 Flow through curved pipes 87
3.3.8 Miscellaneous friction losses 87
3.3.9 Flow over banks of tubes 93
3.3.10 Flow with a free surface 94

3.4 Non-Newtonian Fluids 103
3.4.1 Steady-state shear-dependent behaviour 105
3.4.2 Time-dependent behaviour 113
3.4.3 Viscoelastic behaviour 114
3.4.4 Characterisation of non-Newtonian fluids 118
3.4.5 Dimensionless characterisation of viscoelastic flows 120
3.4.6 Relation between rheology and structure of material 120
3.4.7 Streamline flow in pipes and channels of regular geometry 121
3.4.8 Turbulent flow 136
3.4.9 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow 138

3.5 Further reading 138

3.6 References 139

3.7 N omenclature 140

4. Flow of Compressible Fluids 143
4. i introduction 143
4.2 Flow of gas through a nozzle or orifice 143
4.2.1 Isothermal flow 144
4.2.2 Non-isothermal flow 147
4.3 Velocity of propagation of a pressure wave 152

CONTENTS VI i
4.4 Con verging-diverging nozzles for gas flow 154
4.4.1 Maximum flow and critical pressure ratio 154
4.4.2 The pressure and area for flow 156
4.4.3 Effect of back-pressure on flow in nozzle 158

4.5 Flow in a pipe 158
4.5.1 Energy balance for flow of ideal gas 159
4.5.2 Isothermal flow of an ideal gas in a horizontal pipe 160
4.5.3 Non-isothermal flow of an ideal gas in a horizontal pipe 169
4.5.4 Adiabatic flow of an ideal gas in a horizontal pipe 170
4.5.5 Flow of non-ideal gases 174

4.6 Shock waves .174

4.7 Further reading 1.78
4.8 References 179

4.9 Nomenclature ! 79

5. Flow of Multiphase Mixtures 181
5.1 Introduction 38!

5.2 Two-phase gas (vapour)-liquid flow 182
5.2.1 Introduction 182
5.2.2 Flow regimes and flow patterns 183
5.2.3 Hold-up 186
5.2.4 Pressure, momentum, and energy relations 187
5.2.5 Erosion 194

5.3 Flow of solids-liquid mixtures 195
5.3.1 Introduction 195
5.3.2 Homogeneous non-settling suspensions 196
5.3.3 Coarse solids 198
5.3.4 Coarse solids in horizontal flow 198
5.3.5 Coarse solids in vertical flow 210

5.4 Flow of gas-sol ids mixtures 213
5.4.1 General considerations 213
5.4.2 Horizontal transport 214
5.4.3 Vertical transport 223
5.4.4 Practical applications 224

5.5 Further reading 226
5.6 References 227
5.7 Nomenclature 2.29

6. Flow and Pressure Measurement 232
6.1 Introduction 232
6.2 Fluid pressure 233
6.2.1 Static pressure 233
6.2.2 Pressure measuring devices 234
6.2.3 Pressure signal transmission — the differential pressure cell 237
6.2.4 Intelligent pressure transmitters 240
6.2.5 Impact pressure 242

6.3 Measurement of fluid flow 243
6.3.1 The pilot tube 244
6.3.2 Measurement by flow through a constriction 245
6.3.3 The orifice meter 248
6.3.4 The nozzle 254
6.3.5 The venturi meter 255
6.3.6 Pressure recovery in orifice-type meters 256
6.3.7 Variable area meters — rotameters 257
6.3.8 The notch or weir 261
6.3.9 Other methods of measuring flowrates 264

6.4 Further reading 272

6.5 References 272

6.6 Nomenclature 272
Vlii CONTENTS

7. Liquid Mixing 274
7.1 Introduction — types of mixing 274
7.1.1 Single-phase liquid mixing 274
7.1.2 Mixing of immiscible liquids 274
7.1.3 Gas-liquid mixing 275
7.1.4 Liquid-solids mixing 275
7.1.5 Gas-liquid-solids mixing 275
7.1.6 Solids-solids mixing 275
7.1.7 Miscellaneous mixing applications 276

7.2 Mixing mechanisms 277
7.2.1 Laminar mixing 277
7.2.2 Turbulent mixing 279

7.3 Scale-up of stirred vessels 280
7.4 Power consumption in stirred vessels 282
7.4.1 Low viscosity systems 282
7.4.2 High viscosity systems 288

7.5 Flow patterns in stirred tanks 294

7.6 Rate and time for mixing 298

7.7 Mixing equipment 301
7.7.1 Mechanical agitation 301
7.7.2 Portable mixers 306
7.7.3 Extruders 306
7.7.4 Static mixers 307
7.7.5 Other types of mixer 310

7.8 Mixing in continuous systems 310

7.9 Further reading 31 i

7.10 References 311

7.11 Nomenclature 312

8. Pumping of Fluids 314
Introduction 314
Pumping equipment for liquids 315

8.2.1 Reciprocating pump 316
8.2.2 Positive-displacement rotary pumps 321
8.2.3 The centrifugal pump 329

8.3 Pumping equipment for gases 344
8.3.1 Fans and rotary compressors 344
8.3.2 Centrifugal and turbocompressors 346
8.3.3 The reciprocating piston compressor 347
8.3.4 Power required for the compression of gases 347

8.4 The use of compressed air for pumping 358
8.4.1 The air-lift pump 358

8.5 Vacuum pumps 364

8.6 Power requirements for pumping through pipelines 367
8.6.1 Liquids 368
8.6.2 Gases 374

8.7 Further reading 376

8.8 References 376

8.9 Nomenclature 377
Part 2 Heat Transfer 379

9. Heat Transfer 381
9.1 Introduction 38 i

9.2 Basic considerations 381
9.2.1 Individual and overall coefficients of heat transfer 381
9.2.2 Mean temperature difference 384

CONTENTS IX

9.3 Heat transfer by conduction 387
9.3.1 Conduction through a plane wall 387
9.3.2 Thermal resistances in series 390
9.3.3 Conduction through a thick-walled tube 392
9.3.4 Conduction through a spherical shell and to a particle 392
9.3.5 Unsteady state conduction 394
9.3.6 Conduction with internal heat source 412

9.4 Heat transfer by convection 4.14
9.4.1 Natural and forced convection 414
9.4.2 Application of dimensional analysis to convection 4!5
9.4.3 Forced convection in tubes 417
9.4.4 Forced convection outside tubes 426
9.4.5 Flow in non-circular sections 433
9.4.6 Convection to spherical particles 434
9.4.7 Natural convection 435

9.5 Heat transfer by radiation 438
9.5.1 Introduction 438
9.5.2 Radiation from a black body 439
9.5.3 Radiation from real surfaces 441
9.5.4 Radiation transfer between black surfaces 447
9.5.5 Radiation transfer between grey surfaces 458
9.5.6 Radiation from gases 465

9.6 Heat transfer in the condensation of vapours 471
9.6.1 Film coefficients for vertical and inclined surfaces 471
9.6.2 Condensation on vertical and horizontal tubes 474
9.6.3 Dropwise condensation 476
9.6.4 Condensation of mixed vapours 478

9.7 Boiling liquids 482
9.7.1 Conditions for boiling 482
9.7.2 Types of boiling 484
9.7.3 Heat transfer coefficients and heat flux 486
9.7.4 Analysis based on bubble characteristics 490
9.7.5 Sub-cooled boiling 492
9.7.6 Design considerations 494

9.8 Heat transfer in reaction vessels 496
9.8. f Helical cooling coils 496
9.8.2 Jacketed vessels 499
9.8.3 Time required for heating or cooling 501

9.9 Shell and tube heat exchangers 503
9.9.1 General description 503
9.9.2 Basic components 506
9.9.3 Mean temperature difference in multipass exchangers 510
9.9.4 Film coefficients 517
9.9.5 Pressure drop in heat exchangers 523
9.9.6 Heat exchanger design 526
9.9.7 Heat exchanger performance 534
9.9.8 Transfer units ' 535

9.10 Other forms of equipment 540
9.10.1 Finned-tube units 540
9.10.2 Plate-type exchangers 548
9.10.3 Spiral heat exchangers 550
9.10.4 Compact heat exchangers 550
9.10.5 Scraped-surface heat exchangers 553

9.11 Thermal insulation 555
9.11.1 Heat losses through lagging 555
9.11.2 Economic thickness of lagging 557
9.11.3 Critical thickness of lagging 557

9.12 Further reading 56!

9.13 References ' 562.

9.14 Nomenclature 566

X CONTENTS

Part 3 Mass Transfer 571

10. Mass Transfer 573
10.1 Introduction 573

10.2 Diffusion in binary gas mixtures 575
10.2.1 Properties of binary mixtures 575
10.2.2 Equimolecular counterdiffusion 576
10.2.3 Mass transfer through a stationary second component 577
10.2.4 Diffusivities of gases and vapours 581
10.2.5 Mass transfer velocities 586
10.2.6 General case for gas-phase mass transfer 587
10.2.7 Diffusion as a mass flux 588
10.2.8 Thermal diffusion 589
10.2.9 Unsteady-state mass transfer 590

10.3 Multicomponent gas-phase systems 593
10.3.1 Molar flux in terms of effective diffusivity 593
10.3.2 Maxwell's law of diffusion 594

10.4 Diffusion in liquids 596
10.4.1 Liquid phase diffusivities 597

10.5 Mass transfer across a phase boundary 599
10.5.1 The two-film theory 600
10.5.2 The penetration theory 602
10.5.3 The film-penetration theory 6J4
10.5.4 Mass transfer to a sphere in a homogenous fluid 617
10.5.5 Other theories of mass transfer 618
10.5.6 Interfacial turbulence 618
10.5.7 Mass transfer coefficients 619
10.5.8 Countercurrent mass transfer and transfer units 621

10.6 Mass transfer and chemical reaction 626
10.6.1 Steady-state process 626
10.6.2 Unsteady-state process 631

10.7 Mass transfer and chemical reaction in a catalyst pellet 634
10.7.1 Flat platelets " 636
10.7.2 Spherical pellets 638
10.7.3 Other particle shapes 642
10.7.4 Mass transfer 644 and chemical reaction with a mass transfer resistance external to the pellet

10.8 Practical studies of mass transfer 646
10.8.1 The j-factor of Chilton and Colburn for flow in tubes 646
10.8.2 Mass transfer at plane surfaces 649
10.8.3 Effect of surface roughness and form drag 65i
10.8.4 Mass transfer from a fluid to the surface of particles 651

10.9 Further reading 654

10.10 References 655

10.11 Nomenclature 656
Part 4 Momentum, Heat and Mass Transfer 661

11. The Boundary Layer 663
11.1 Introduction 663
11.2 The momentum equation 668
11.3 The streamline portion of the boundary layer 670
11.4 The turbulent boundary layer 675

11.4.1 The turbulent portion 675
11.4.2 The laminar sub-layer 677

11.5 Boundary layer theory applied to pipe flow 681
11.5.1 Entry conditions 681
11.5.2 Application of the boundary-layer theory 682

CONTENTS XI

11.6 The boundary layer for heat transfer 685
11.6.1 Introduction 685
11.6.2 The heat balance 685
i 1.6.3 Heat transfer for streamline flow over a plane surface — constant surface temperature 687

31.6,4 Heat transfer for streamline flow over a plane surface — constant surface heat flux 690

11.7 The boundary layer for mass transfer 691

11.8 Further reading 692

11.9 References 692

11.10 Nomenclature 692

12. Momentum, Heat, and Mass Transfer 694

12.1 Introduction 694

12.2 Transfer by molecular diffusion 696
12.2.1 Momentum transfer 696
12.2.2 Heat transfer 696
12.2.3 Mass transfer 696
12.2.4 Viscosity 697
12.2.5 Thermal conductivity 698
12.2.6 Diffusivity 699

12.3 Eddy transfer 700
12.3.1 The nature of turbulent flow 701
12.3.2 Mixing length and eddy kinematic viscosity 702

12.4 Universal velocity profile 706
12.4.1 The turbulent core 706
12.4.2 The laminar sub-layer 707
12.4.3 The buffer layer 707
12.4.4 Velocity profile for all regions 708
12.4.5 Velocity gradients 708
12.4.6 Laminar sub-layer and buffer layer thicknesses 709
12.4.7 Variation of eddy kinematic viscosity 7SO
12.4.8 Approximate form of velocity profile in turbulent region 711
12.4.9 Effect of curvature of pipe wall on shear stress 7 i 2

12.5 Friction factor for a smooth pipe 713

12.6 Effect of surface roughness on shear stress 715

12.7 Simultaneous momentum, heat and mass transfer 717

12.8 Reynolds analogy 720
12.8.1 Simple form of analogy between momentum, heat and mass transfer 720
12.8.2 Mass transfer with bulk flow 72,3
12.8.3 Taylor-Prandtl modification of Reynolds analogy for heat 725 transfer and mass transfer
12.8.4 Use of universal velocity profile in Reynolds analogy 727
12.8.5 Flow over a plane surface 729
12.8.6 Flow in a pipe 731

12.9 Further reading 735

12.10 References 735

12.11 Nomenclature 735

13. Humidification and Water Cooling 738
13.1 Introduction 738

13.2 Humidification terms 739
13.2.1 Definitions 739
13.2.2 Wet-bulb temperature 742
13.2.3 Adiabatic saturation temperature 743

13.3 Humidity data for the air-water system 746
13.3.1 Temperature-humidity chart 749
13.3.2 Enthalpy-humidity chart 751

XII CONTENTS

13.4 Determination of humidity 756

13.5 Humidification and dehumidification 759
13.5,1 Methods of increasing humidity 759
1.3.5.2 Dehumidification 76!

13.6 Water cooling 762
13.6.1 Cooling towers 762
13.6.2 Design of natural-draught towers 765
13.6.3 Height of packing for both natural and mechanical draught towers 767
13.6.4 Change in air condition 772
13.6.5 Temperature and humidity gradients in a water cooling tower 773
13.6.6 Evaluation of heat and mass transfer coefficients 774
13.6.7 Humidifying towers 778

13.7 Systems other than air-water 779

13.8 Further reading 785

13.9 References 786

13.10 Nomenclature 787

Appendix 789

A1. Tables of physical properties 790

A2. Steam tables 806

A3. Mathematical tables 815
Fold-out charts

Problems 825

Index 869

Vols. <4, 6 > lack series statement.

Includes bibliographies and indexes.