Forest measurements / Thomas Eugene Avery & Harold E. Burkhart.

Contents;

1 Introduction
1-1 Purpose of Book
1-2 Need for Measurements
1-3 Measurement Cost Considerations
1-4 Abbreviations and Symbols

Numerical Considerations
1-5 Scales of Measurement
1-6 Significant Digits and Rounding Off
1-7 English Versus Metric Systems

Presenting Information
1-8 Preparation of Graphs
1-9 Preparation of Technical Reports
1-10 Reviews of Technical Literature
Problems

2 Statistical Methods
2-1 Introduction
2-2 Bias, Accuracy, and Precision
2-3 Calculating Probabilities
2-4 Factorial Notation, Permutations, and Combinations

Statistical Concepts
2-5 Analysis of Data
2-6 Populations, Parameters, and Variables
2-7 Frequency Distributions

Statistical Computations
2-8 Mode, Median, and Mean
2-9 The Range and Average Deviation
2-10 Variance and Standard Deviation
2-11 Coefficient of Variation
2-12 Standard Error of the Mean
2-13 Confidence Limits
2-14 Covariance
2-15 Simple Correlation Coefficient
2-16 Expansion of Means and Standard Errors
2-17 Mean and Variance of Linear Functions

Simple Linear Regression
2-18 Definitions
2-19 A Linear Equation
2-20 A Sample Problem
2-21 Indicators of Fit
2-22 Regression Through the Origin
2-23 Hazards of Interpretation
2-24 Multiple Regression
Problems
References

3 Sampling Designs
3-1 Introduction
3-2 Sampling Versus Complete Enumeration
3-3 The Sampling Frame

Simple Random and Systematic Sampling
3-4 Simple Random Sampling
3-5 Sampling Intensity
3-6 Effect of Plot Size on Variability
3-7 Systematic Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling
3-8 Stratifying the Population
3-9 Proportional Allocation of Field Plots
3-10 Optimum Allocation of Field Plots
3-11 Sample Size for Stratified Sampling

Regression and Ratio Estimation
3-12 Regression Estimation
3-13 Comparison of Regression Estimation to Simple Random Sampling
3-14 Ratio Estimation

Double Sampling
3-15 Double Sampling with Regression and Ratio Estimators
3-16 Double Sampling for Stratification

Cluster and Two-Stage Sampling
3-17 Cluster Sampling
3-18 Two-Stage Sampling

Sampling for Discrete Variables
3-19 Simple Random Sampling for Attributes
3-20 Cluster Sampling for Attributes
3-21 Relative Efficiencies of Sampling Plans
Problems
References

4 Land Measurements
4-1 Applications of Surveying

Measuring Distances
4-2 Pacing Horizontal Distances
4-3 Chaining Horizontal Distances
4-4 Methods of Tape Graduation
4-5 Electronic Distance Measurement

Using Magnetic Compasses
4-6 Nomenclature of the Compass
4-7 Magnetic Declination
4-8 Allowance for Declination
4-9 Use of the Compass

Area Determination
4-10 Simple Closed Traverse
4-11 Graphical Area Determination
4-12 DOT Grids
4-13 Planimeters
4-14 Transects
4-15 Topographic Maps

Colonial Land Subdivision
4-16 Metes and Bounds Surveys

The U.S. Public Land Survey
4-17 History
4-18 The Method of Subdivision
4-19 The 24-Mile Tracts
4-20 Townships
4-21 Establishment of Sections and Lots
4-22 Survey Field Notes
4-23 Marking Land Survey Lines

Global Positioning Systems
4-24 Purpose of GPS
4-25 How GPS Works
4-26 GPS Accuracy
4-27 Differential Correction
4-28 GPS Data
4-29 GPS Receivers
Problems
References

5 Cubic Volume, Cord Measure, and Weight Scaling
5-1 Logs, Bolts, and Scaling Units
5-2 Computing Cross-Sectional Areas
5-3 Log Volumes and Geometric Solids
5-4 Scaling by the Cubic Foot
5-5 Inscribed Square Timbers

Measuring Stacked Wood
5-6 The Cord
5-7 Solid Contents of Stacked Wood
5-8 An Ideal Measure

Weight Scaling of Pulpwood
5-9 The Appeal of Weight Scaling
5-10 Variations in Weight
5-11 Wood Density and Weight Ratios
5-12 Advantages of Weight Scaling
Problems
References

6 Log Rules, Scaling Practices, and Specialty Wood Products
6-1 Log Rules
6-2 General Features of Board-Foot Log Rules

Derivation of Log Rules
6-3 Mill-Tally Log Rules
6-4 Board Foot-Cubic Root Ratios
6-5 Scribner Log Rule
6-6 Doyle Log Rule
6-7 International Log Rule
6-8 Overrun and Underrun
6-9 Board-Foot Volume Conversions

Board-Foot Log Scaling
6-10 Scaling Straight, Sound Logs
6-11 Log Defects
6-12 Board-Foot Deduction Methods
6-13 Cull Percent Deduction Methods
6-14 Merchantable Versus Cull Logs
6-15 Scaling Records
6-16 Log Scanning

Log Grading
6-17 Need for Log Grading
6-18 Hardwood Log Grading
6-19 Softwood Log Grading

Weight Scaling of Sawlogs
6-20 Advantages and Limitations
6-21 Volume-Weight Relationships for Sawlogs

Specialty Wood Products
6-22 Specialty Products Defined
6-23 Veneer Logs
6-24 Poles and Piling
6-25 Fence Posts
6-26 Railroad Ties
6-27 Mine Timbers
6-28 Stumps for the Wood Naval-Stores Industry
6-29 Bolts and Billets
6-30 Fuel Wood
Problems
References

7 Measuring Standing Trees
7-1 Tree Diameters
7-2 Diameter at Breast Height for Irregular Trees
7-3 Measuring Bark Thickness
7-4 Tree Diameter Classes
7-5 Basal Area and Mean Diameter
7-6 Upper-Stem Diameters

Tree Heights
7-7 Height Poles
7-8 Height Measurement Principles
7-9 Merritt Hypsometer
7-10 Total Versus Merchantable Heights
7-11 Sawlog Merchantability for Irregular Stems

Tree Form Expressions
7-12 Form Factors and Quotients
7-13 Girard Form Class
7-14 Form Measurements

Tree Crowns
7-15 Importance of Crown Measures
7-16 Crown Width
7-17 Crown Length
7-18 Crown Surface Area and Volume

Tree Age
7-19 Definitions
7-20 Age From Annual Rings
7-21 Age Without Annual Rings
Problems
References

8 Volumes and Weights of Standing Trees
8-1 Purpose of Volume and Weight Equations
8-2 Types of Tree Volume and Weight Equations

Multiple-Entry Volume Tables
8-3 Form-Class Versus Non-Form-Class Equations
8-4 Compilation of ME savage-Girard Form-Class Tables
8-5 Constructing Multiple-Entry Volume Equations
8-6 Selecting a Multiple-Entry Volume Equation
8-7 Making Allowances for Various Utilization Standards
8-8 Tree Volumes From Taper Equations
8-9 Integrating Taper Functions

Single-Entry Volume Equations
8-10 Advantages and Limitations
8-11 Constructing a Single-Entry Equation from Measurements of Felled Trees
8-12 Derivation from a Multiple-Entry Equation
8-13 Tariff Tables

Tree Weight Equations
8-14 Field Tallies by Weight
8-15 Weight Equations for Tree Boles
8-16 Biomass Equations
Problems
References

9 Forest Inventory
9-1 Introduction
9-2 Classes of Timber Surveys
9-3 Inventory Planning
9-4 Forest Inventory and Analysis

Special Inventory Considerations
9-5 Tree Tallies
9-6 Electronic Data Recorders
9-7 Tree-Defect Estimation
9-8 The Complete Tree Tally
9-9 Organizing the Complete Tree Tally
9-10 Timber Inventory as a Sampling Process

Summaries of Cruise Data
9-11 Stand and Stock Tables
9-12 Timber Volumes From Stump Diameters
Sales of Standing Timber
9-13 Stumpage Value
9-14 Methods of Selling Standing Timber
9-15 Timber-Sale Contracts
Problems
References

10 Inventories with Sample Strips or Plots
10-1 Fixed-Area Sampling Units

Strip System of Cruising
10-2 Strip-Cruise Layout
10-3 Computing Tract Acreage From Sample Strips
10-4 Field Procedure for Strip Cruising
10-5 Pros and Cons of Strip Cruising

Line-Plot System of Cruising
10-6 The Traditional Approach
10-7 Plot Cruise Example
10-8 Sampling Intensity and Design
10-9 Cruising Techniques
10-10 Boundary Overlap
10-11 Merits of the Plot System

Use of Permanent Sample Plots
10-12 Criteria for Inventory Plots
10-13 Sample Units: Size, Shape, and Number
10-14 Field-Plot Establishment
10-15 Field-Plot Measurements
10-16 Periodic Reinventories

Regeneration Surveys with Sample Plots
10-17 Need for Regeneration Surveys
10-18 Stocked-Quadrat Method
10-19 Plot-Count Method
10-20 Staked-Point Method
Problems
References

11 Inventories with Point Samples
11-1 The Concept of Point Sampling
11-2 Nomenclature and Variants
11-3 Selecting a Sighting Angle
11-4 Plot Radius Factor

How Point Sampling Works
11-5 Imaginary Tree Zones
11-6 Equality of Tree Basal Area on a Per-Acre Basis

Implementing Point Sampling
11-7 The Stick-Type Angle Gauge
11-8 The Spiegel Relascope
11-9 The Wedge Prism
11-10 Calibration of Prisms or Angle Gauges
11-11 Corrections for Slope
11-12 Doubtful Trees, Limiting Distances, and Bias
11-13 Boundary Overlap
11-14 Choice of Instruments

Volume Calculations
11-15 Example of Computational Procedures
11-16 Basal Area Per Acre
11-17 Trees Per Acre
11-18 Volume Per Acre by the Volume-Factor Approach
11-19 Volume Per Acre by the Volume/Basal-Area Ratios Approach
11-20 Estimating Precision
11-21 Field Tally by Height Class
11-22 Point Sampling in a Double-Sampling Context
11-23 Estimating Growth from Permanent Points

Point-Sample Cruising Intensity
11-24 Comparisons with Conventional Plots
11-25 Number of Sampling Points Needed
11-26 Point Samples Versus Plots
11-27 Attributes and Limitations
Problems
References

12 Inventories with 3P Sampling
12-1 Introduction
12-2 Components of 3P Inventory

How 3P is Applied
12-3 Timber-Sale Example
12-4 Preliminary Steps
12-5 Field Procedure
12-6 Sample-Tree Measurement
12-7 3P Computations
12-8 Numerical Example

Extensions, Attributes, and Limitations of Basic 3P Sampling
12-9 Extensions of Basic 3P Sampling
12-10 Attributes and Limitations of 3P Sampling
Problems
References

13 Using Aerial Photographs
13-1 Purpose of Chapter
13-2 Types of Aerial Photographs
13-3 Black-and-White Aerial Films
13-4 Color Aerial Films
13-5 Seasons for Aerial Photography
13-6 Determining Photographic Scales
13-7 Photogeometry
13-8 Aligning Prints for Stereoscopic Study

Cover-Type Identification and Mapping
13-9 Forest Type Recognition
13-10 Identifying Individual Species
13-11 Timber Type Maps
13-12 Using Photos for Field Travel

Basic Forest Measurements
13-13 Measuring Area and Distance
13-14 Measuring Heights by Parallax
13-15 Parallax-Measuring Devices
13-16 Tree-Crown Diameters
13-17 Tree Counts
13-18 Individual-Tree Volumes
13-19 Aerial Stand-Volume Tables
13-20 Crown Closure
13-21 Stand-Volume Estimates
13-22 Adjusting Photo Volumes by Field Checks

Obtaining Aerial Photographs
13-23 The Options
13-24 Photography from Commercial Firms
13-25 Photography from the U.S. Government
13-26 Photography from the Canadian Government
13-27 Taking Your Own Pictures
13-28 Contracting For New Photography
13-29 Other Remote-Sensing Tools
Problems
References

14 Geographic Information Systems
14-1 What is a GIS?
GIS Data Structures
14-2 Data Formats
14-3 Raster Data
14-4 Vector Data
14-5 Raster Versus Vector Systems

Geographic Coordinate Systems
14-6 Types of Coordinate Systems
14-7 The Latitude and Longitude System
14-8 The Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System
14-9 The State Plane Coordinate System

GIS Data Sources, Entry, and Quality
14-10 Deriving Digital Maps
14-11 Existing Map Data
14-12 Digitizing and Scanning
14-13 Field and Image Data
14-14 Errors and Accuracy

GIS Analysis Functions
14-15 Analysis-The Power of GIS
14-16 Spatial Analysis Functions
14-17 Cartographic Modeling
Problems
References

15 Site, Stocking, and Stand Density
15-1 The Concepts of Site
15-2 Direct Measurement of Forest Productivity
15-3 Tree Height as a Measure of Site Quality
15-4 Field Measurement of Site Index
15-5 Construction of Site-Index Curves
15-6 Interspecies Site-Index Relationships
15-7 Periodic Height Growth
15-8 Physical-Factors Approach
15-9 Indicator-Plant Approach
15-10 Limitations of Site Index

Stocking and Stand Density
15-11 Definitions
15-12 Measures of Stocking
15-13 Basal Area Per Acre
15-14 Trees Per Acre
15-15 Stand-Density Index
15-16 3/2 Law of Self-Thinning
15-17 Relative Spacing
15-18 Crown Competition Factor
15-19 Stocking Guides
15-20 Measures of Point Density
Problems
References

16 Tree-Growth and Stand-Table Projection
16-1 Increases in Tree Diameter
16-2 Increases in Tree Height
16-3 Periodic and Mean Annual Growth
16-4 Past Growth From Complete Stem Analysis
16-5 Tree Growth as a Percentage Value
16-6 Predictions of Tree Growth
16-7 Future Yields from Growth Percentage
16-8 Growth Prediction from Diameter and Height Increases

Stand-Table Projection
16-9 Components of Stand Growth
16-10 Characteristics of Stand-Table Projection
16-11 Diameter Growth
16-12 Stand Mortality and Ingrowth
16-13 A Sample Stand Projection
Problems
References

17 Growth and Yield Models
17-1 Introduction
17-2 Growth and Yield Relationships
17-3 Mathematical Relationships Between Growth and Yield

Growth and Yield Models for Even-Aged Stands
17-4 Normal Yield Tables
17-5 Empirical Yield Tables
17-6 Variable-Density Growth and Yield Equations
17-7 Size-Class Distribution Models
17-8 Example of Computations for Size-Class Distribution Model
17-9 Individual-Tree Models for Even-Aged Stands

Growth and Yield Models for Uneven-Aged Stands
17-10 Special Considerations in Modeling Uneven-Aged Stands
17-11 Growth and Yield Equations Based on Elapsed Time
17-12 Size-Class Distribution Models Using Stand-Table Projection
17-13 Individual-Tree Models that Include Uneven-Aged Stands

Applying Growth and Yield Models
17-14 Enhancing Output from Growth and Yield Models
17-15 Choosing an Appropriate Growth and Yield Model
17-16 A Word of Caution
Problems
References

18 Assessing Rangeland, Wildlife, Water,
and Recreational Resources
18-1 Purpose of Chapter

Measuring Rangeland Resources
18-2 Forage Resources
18-3 Planning Range Measurements
18-4 Sampling Considerations
18-5 Determining Grazing Capacity
18-6 Clipped-Plot Technique
18-7 Range-Utilization Estimates
18-8 Range Condition and Trend

Measuring Wildlife Resources
18-9 Animal Populations and Habitat
18-10 Population Estimates
18-11 Habitat Measurement

Measuring Water Resources
18-12 Importance of Water
18-13 Factors Affecting Runoff
18-14 Physical Characteristics of a Watershed
18-15 Measurement of Water Quantity
18-16 Measurement of Water Quality

Measuring Recreational Resources
18-17 The Problem
18-18 Visitor Use of Recreational Facilities
18-19 Assessing Potential Recreational Sites

Includes bibliographical references.