Clinical decisions in therapeutic exercise : planning and implementation /
Nyland, John.
Clinical decisions in therapeutic exercise : planning and implementation / John Nyland. - Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson Education, c2006. - xxiii, 695 p. : ill. ; 29 cm. + 1 CD-ROM (4 3/4 in.)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Contents
Section I. Foundations of Therapeutic Exercise Program Planning
Chapter 1. Effects of Immobilization and Disuse on Body System Function
by Jerrad Zimmerman, Christine Price, and John Nyland
Introduction
Case Scenario
Effects of Immobilization and Disuse on the Musculoskeletal System
Muscular Consequences
Bony Consequences
Ligament and Tendon Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Articular Cartilage Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Neuromuscular Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Cardiovascular Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Pulmonary Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Hematological Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Integumentary Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Gastrointestinal Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Urinary Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Metabolic Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Psychosocial Considerations
Disability and Quality of Life
Definitions of Disability
Prevention of Disability
Therapeutic Exercise and Its Contraindications
Summary
Chapter 2. The Physiology of Muscle Activation
by J. Timothy Noteboom
Introduction
Muscle Metabolism
ATP-PC system
Glycolysis
The Oxidative System (Fat and Protein)
Fat Oxidation
Protein Oxidation
Oxidative System Regulation
Energy Production and Capacity
Intensity and Duration of Exercise
Nutrient Related Fatigue
Oxygen Uptake During Recovery: The So-called "Oxygen Debt"
Updated Theory to Explain EPOC
Implications of EPOC for Exercise and Recovery
Optimal Recovery from Exercise
Intermittent Exercise: The Interval Training Approach
Nutrition
Protein
Dietary Protein
Protein Requirements
Carbohydrates
Dietary Carbohydrate
Lipids
Pharmacological Agents and Exercise
Motor Units and Muscle Fibers
Muscle Physiology, A Historical Perspective
Actin Filaments
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Muscle Fiber Type
Motor units
Contractile Properties
Contractile Speed
Motor Unit Force
Fatigability
Motor Unit Types
Motor Unit Activation Patterns
Motor Unit Recruitment Order
Discharge Rate
Fatigue
Aging
Spinal Reflexes
Stretch Reflex
Golgi tendon organs
Withdrawal Reflex
Automatic Responses
The Effects of Arousal on Motor Performance
Summary
Chapter 3. Stretching for Musculotendinous Extensibility, Joint Flexibility
by Harvey Wallmann and J. Timothy Noteboom
Introduction
Viscoelastic Tissue Properties
Stress and Strain
Viscoelasticity and Tissue Function
Structure, Viscoelastic Properties, and Function of Tissue
Tendons and Ligaments
Muscle
Articular Cartilage
Bone
Influence of Training, Disuse, Aging, and Gender on Tissues of the Musculoskeletal System
Bone
Ligaments/Joint Capsule
Tendon
Muscle
Influence of Sensory and Motor Systems on Flexibility
Stretching and Musculotendinous Flexibility
What is Stretching?
What is Flexibility?
Flexibility and Associated Topics
Limitations to Flexibility
Aging and Flexibility
Gender Differences
Pathology and Joint Laxity
Flexibility Assessment
Principles Of Stretching
General Effects of Stretching
Types of Stretching
Stretching Comparisons
Proposed Stretching Benefits
Performance Enhancement
Long-Term Flexibility Effects
Short-Term Effects
Rationale for Stretching Affecting Performance
Stretching Precautions
Stretching Aids
Essentials of a Stretching Program
When to Stretch
Program
Summary
Chapter 4. Training for Cardiovascular Power and Endurance
by Mark Reinking and Harvey Wallmann
Introduction
Metabolic Pathways
Blood Lactate Accumulation
Response to Exercise
Aerobic Capacity and Endurance
Maximal Oxygen Uptake (VO2max)
Factors Affecting VO2max
Training for Maximal Aerobic Capacity
Exercise Economy and Aerobic Capacity
Effects of Endurance Training
Oxygen Uptake Adaptations
Cardiovascular Adaptations
Cardiopulmonary Adaptations
Metabolic Adaptations
Blood Lactate Adaptations
Thermoregulation
Temperature Regulatory Control
Hyperthermia
Hypothermia
Clinical Exercise Testing
Screening
Graded Exercise Testing
Maximal Graded Exercise Testing
Submaximal Graded Exercise Testing
Laboratory Testing
Treadmill
Cycle Ergometer
Step
Field Testing
Lifespan Changes
Introduction To Aerobic Exercise Prescription
Considerations in Aerobic Exercise Prescription
Exercise Program Adherence
Components of Aerobic Power Exercise Prescription
Overload Principle
Reversibility Principle
Aerobic Exercise Intensity
Aerobic Exercise Duration
Aerobic Exercise Frequency
Aerobic Exercise Preparation
Aerobic Exercise Mode
Cross-Training
Continuous vs. Interval Training
Exercise Modes to Improve Aerobic Power
Walking
Running
Inline Skating
Step Aerobics
Aerobic Dance
Stair-Stepping
Elliptical Trainers
Cross-country skiing
Bicycling
Rowing
Arm Ergometry
Aquatic Exercise
Aerobic Exercise Progression
Aerobic Exercise Initiation (Phase I)
Aerobic Exercise Advancement (Phase II)
Aerobic Exercise Maintenance (Phase III)
Special Considerations In Aerobic Exercise
Exercise-related Cardiac Events
Pregnancy
Diabetes Mellitus
Age: Children and Elderly
Summary
Chapter 5. Training for Muscular Strength, Power and Endurance
by J.A. Brosky, Jr. and Glenn A. Wright
Introduction
Resistance Training Considerations
Existing Health and Fitness Status
Client Goals
Performance Vs. Health-Related Fitness and Training
Types of Muscular Actions
Resistance Training Principles
Overload
Progression
Specificity
Reversibility
Fundamentals of Muscular Fitness
Training for Muscular Strength
Training for Muscle Hypertrophy
Training for Muscular Endurance
Muscular Power
Resistance Training Program Design
Other Resistance Training Methods
Therapeutic Exercise Program Applications of Cross Training and Circuit Training
Cross Training and Crossover Effect
Circuit Training
Pyramids, Split Routines, Super Sets, and Compound Sets
Exercise, Therapeutic Exercise, or Rehabilitation?
General Principles of Therapeutic Exercise Intervention
Creation of a Functional Therapeutic Exercise Environment
Planes of Motion
Posture and the "Ready Position"
The Dosage Dilemma: How Much Is Enough, Too Much, or Not Enough?
"Physical Stress Theory", Overload, and Neural Adaptation
Overload vs. Overtraining
Closed and Open Kinematic or Kinetic Chains
Considerations of the Squat and its Variations as Cornerstones of Lower Extremity Exercise
The Spinal Engine
Axial-Appendicular Relationship and Anatomical Rationale for Core Stability
The Serape Effect
Kinesiological Monitors
Examples of Dynamic Stabilization Exercises
Total Gym
Plyometrics: Training for Power
Screening for Plyometric Training Readiness
Functional Performance Testing
Common Methods of Resistance Training
Resistance Machines
Free Weights, Dumbbells and Medicine Balls
Elastic Resistance Devices
Manual Resistance and Body Weight Resistance
Isokinetics
Other Resistance Training Environments
The Aquatic Environment
Friction: Lower Extremity Sliding Boards (Inertial/Isoinertial)
Swiss Ball
Common Denominators of Successful Knee Injury Prevention Programs
Summary
Chapter 6. Training For Joint Stability
by Timothy F. Tyler and Michael Mullaney
Introduction
The Structure Of Joint Stability
Joint Structure and Design
Diarthrodial Joint Designs
Non-Contractile Stability
Contractile Stability
Dynamic Joint Stability
Neuromuscular Control
Generalized Joint Hypomobility vs. Hypermobility
Inherent Vs. Acquired Joint Laxity
Spinal Stability
Increased Joint Laxity in Females: Fact or Fiction?
Joint Stability Changes Across the Lifespan
Treatment Techniques
Neuromuscular Training
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
Biofeedback
Lumbar Stabilization Training
Swiss Ball Therapy for Lumbar Stabilization
Taping for Joint Stability
Post-Operative Joint Stabilization Training
Functional, Prophylactic, and Post-Operative Orthoses
Summary
Chapter 7. Training for Proprioception and Kinesthesia
by William Ogard
Introduction
What is Proprioception?
Neuroanatomic and Neurophysiologic Basis for Proprioception
Muscle Receptors: Muscle Spindle and Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO)
Articular Receptors: Capsular and Ligamentous Mechanoreceptors
Evidence for a Primary Source of Afferent Information for Proprioception
Testing Proprioception
Knee Joint Proprioception Studies
Shoulder Joint Proprioception
Ankle Proprioception
The Spine and Proprioception
Effects of Training/Exercise on Proprioception
Aspects of Rehabilitation Exercise and Training with Utilization of Proprioceptive Input
Exercise and Training Guidelines
Summary
Chapter 8. Training for Neuromuscular Coordination and Re-Education
by Timothy Brindle
Introduction
Movement
Movement Accuracy
Movement Errors
Pointing or Reaching with the Upper Extremity
Locomotion
Input to the CNS
Visual Feedback
Mechanoreceptors
Central Nervous System - Motor Processing
Spinal Cord
Brain Stem
Cerebral Cortex
CNS Output
Background of Movement Control and Motor Learning
Equilibrium Point Hypothesis
The Alpha Model
The Lambda Model
Amplitude and Duration Control
CNS Control of Movement
Motor Planning- Input
Closed Loop Control
The Stretch Reflex and its Contribution to Motor Control
Motor Planning- Central Processing
Open Loop Control
Motor Programs
Motor Program- Output
Invariant Movement Parameters
Variable Movement Parameters
Muscle Output -- Characteristics
Synchronization
Muscle Macro- and Microscopic Architecture
Motor Learning
Motor Program Errors
Age and Training
Neuromuscular Training /Evaluation and Techniques
Critical Tracking Tasks
Medicine Ball or Plyometric Exercises from a Motor Control Perspective
Summary
Chapter 9. Training for Agility and Balance
by Claudia Angeli
Introduction
Components of Agility
Changes Across the Lifespan
Biomechanics of Agility
Walking
Ground Reaction Forces
Base of Support
Running
Cutting
Joint Moments
Reaching and Grasping
Agility Training Progressions
Agility Drill Examples
Balance
Summary
Chapter 10 Complementary and Alternative Approaches to Movement and Exercise
by Theresa J. Kraemer
Introduction
Recent Events
Terminology
Classification System
Basic Concepts Behind Complementary and Alternative Movement Approaches
Mind-Body-Energy Connection
Universal Life Force
Chakras or Energy Centers
Meridians or Channels
Energy Systems and Healing
Mind-Body-Energy-Movement Relationship
Energy Balance and Movement
Ten Principles of Movement Quality
Healing Through Movement
Dance Therapy
Background
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Evidence
Technique
Practitioner Training
The Feldenkrais Method
Background
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Techniques
Evidence
Equipment
Example: A Spinal ATM Lesson
Practitioner Training
Nickolaus Technique
Background
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Equipment
Technique
Evidence and Practitioner Requirements
Pilates
Background
Pilates Eight Basic Principles of Body Conditioning
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications and Special Precautions
Evidence
Equipment
Technique
Practitioner Training
Qigong
Background
Principles
Technique
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Evidence
Equipment
Basic Techniques
Practitioner Requirements
Tai Chi
Background
Basic Technique
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Evidence
Equipment
Technique
Beginning Tai Chi Exercise Program
Practitioner Training
Yoga
Background
Posture (Asana) and Breathing (Pranayama)
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Evidence
Equipment
Technique
Example Yoga Program
Practitioner Requirements
0130480363 (alk. paper) 9780130480361
Exercise therapy.
Exercise Therapy.
Biomechanics.
Planning Techniques.
WB 541 N995c 2006
Clinical decisions in therapeutic exercise : planning and implementation / John Nyland. - Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson Education, c2006. - xxiii, 695 p. : ill. ; 29 cm. + 1 CD-ROM (4 3/4 in.)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Contents
Section I. Foundations of Therapeutic Exercise Program Planning
Chapter 1. Effects of Immobilization and Disuse on Body System Function
by Jerrad Zimmerman, Christine Price, and John Nyland
Introduction
Case Scenario
Effects of Immobilization and Disuse on the Musculoskeletal System
Muscular Consequences
Bony Consequences
Ligament and Tendon Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Articular Cartilage Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Neuromuscular Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Cardiovascular Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Pulmonary Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Hematological Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Integumentary Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Gastrointestinal Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Urinary Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Metabolic Effects of Immobilization and Disuse
Psychosocial Considerations
Disability and Quality of Life
Definitions of Disability
Prevention of Disability
Therapeutic Exercise and Its Contraindications
Summary
Chapter 2. The Physiology of Muscle Activation
by J. Timothy Noteboom
Introduction
Muscle Metabolism
ATP-PC system
Glycolysis
The Oxidative System (Fat and Protein)
Fat Oxidation
Protein Oxidation
Oxidative System Regulation
Energy Production and Capacity
Intensity and Duration of Exercise
Nutrient Related Fatigue
Oxygen Uptake During Recovery: The So-called "Oxygen Debt"
Updated Theory to Explain EPOC
Implications of EPOC for Exercise and Recovery
Optimal Recovery from Exercise
Intermittent Exercise: The Interval Training Approach
Nutrition
Protein
Dietary Protein
Protein Requirements
Carbohydrates
Dietary Carbohydrate
Lipids
Pharmacological Agents and Exercise
Motor Units and Muscle Fibers
Muscle Physiology, A Historical Perspective
Actin Filaments
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
Muscle Fiber Type
Motor units
Contractile Properties
Contractile Speed
Motor Unit Force
Fatigability
Motor Unit Types
Motor Unit Activation Patterns
Motor Unit Recruitment Order
Discharge Rate
Fatigue
Aging
Spinal Reflexes
Stretch Reflex
Golgi tendon organs
Withdrawal Reflex
Automatic Responses
The Effects of Arousal on Motor Performance
Summary
Chapter 3. Stretching for Musculotendinous Extensibility, Joint Flexibility
by Harvey Wallmann and J. Timothy Noteboom
Introduction
Viscoelastic Tissue Properties
Stress and Strain
Viscoelasticity and Tissue Function
Structure, Viscoelastic Properties, and Function of Tissue
Tendons and Ligaments
Muscle
Articular Cartilage
Bone
Influence of Training, Disuse, Aging, and Gender on Tissues of the Musculoskeletal System
Bone
Ligaments/Joint Capsule
Tendon
Muscle
Influence of Sensory and Motor Systems on Flexibility
Stretching and Musculotendinous Flexibility
What is Stretching?
What is Flexibility?
Flexibility and Associated Topics
Limitations to Flexibility
Aging and Flexibility
Gender Differences
Pathology and Joint Laxity
Flexibility Assessment
Principles Of Stretching
General Effects of Stretching
Types of Stretching
Stretching Comparisons
Proposed Stretching Benefits
Performance Enhancement
Long-Term Flexibility Effects
Short-Term Effects
Rationale for Stretching Affecting Performance
Stretching Precautions
Stretching Aids
Essentials of a Stretching Program
When to Stretch
Program
Summary
Chapter 4. Training for Cardiovascular Power and Endurance
by Mark Reinking and Harvey Wallmann
Introduction
Metabolic Pathways
Blood Lactate Accumulation
Response to Exercise
Aerobic Capacity and Endurance
Maximal Oxygen Uptake (VO2max)
Factors Affecting VO2max
Training for Maximal Aerobic Capacity
Exercise Economy and Aerobic Capacity
Effects of Endurance Training
Oxygen Uptake Adaptations
Cardiovascular Adaptations
Cardiopulmonary Adaptations
Metabolic Adaptations
Blood Lactate Adaptations
Thermoregulation
Temperature Regulatory Control
Hyperthermia
Hypothermia
Clinical Exercise Testing
Screening
Graded Exercise Testing
Maximal Graded Exercise Testing
Submaximal Graded Exercise Testing
Laboratory Testing
Treadmill
Cycle Ergometer
Step
Field Testing
Lifespan Changes
Introduction To Aerobic Exercise Prescription
Considerations in Aerobic Exercise Prescription
Exercise Program Adherence
Components of Aerobic Power Exercise Prescription
Overload Principle
Reversibility Principle
Aerobic Exercise Intensity
Aerobic Exercise Duration
Aerobic Exercise Frequency
Aerobic Exercise Preparation
Aerobic Exercise Mode
Cross-Training
Continuous vs. Interval Training
Exercise Modes to Improve Aerobic Power
Walking
Running
Inline Skating
Step Aerobics
Aerobic Dance
Stair-Stepping
Elliptical Trainers
Cross-country skiing
Bicycling
Rowing
Arm Ergometry
Aquatic Exercise
Aerobic Exercise Progression
Aerobic Exercise Initiation (Phase I)
Aerobic Exercise Advancement (Phase II)
Aerobic Exercise Maintenance (Phase III)
Special Considerations In Aerobic Exercise
Exercise-related Cardiac Events
Pregnancy
Diabetes Mellitus
Age: Children and Elderly
Summary
Chapter 5. Training for Muscular Strength, Power and Endurance
by J.A. Brosky, Jr. and Glenn A. Wright
Introduction
Resistance Training Considerations
Existing Health and Fitness Status
Client Goals
Performance Vs. Health-Related Fitness and Training
Types of Muscular Actions
Resistance Training Principles
Overload
Progression
Specificity
Reversibility
Fundamentals of Muscular Fitness
Training for Muscular Strength
Training for Muscle Hypertrophy
Training for Muscular Endurance
Muscular Power
Resistance Training Program Design
Other Resistance Training Methods
Therapeutic Exercise Program Applications of Cross Training and Circuit Training
Cross Training and Crossover Effect
Circuit Training
Pyramids, Split Routines, Super Sets, and Compound Sets
Exercise, Therapeutic Exercise, or Rehabilitation?
General Principles of Therapeutic Exercise Intervention
Creation of a Functional Therapeutic Exercise Environment
Planes of Motion
Posture and the "Ready Position"
The Dosage Dilemma: How Much Is Enough, Too Much, or Not Enough?
"Physical Stress Theory", Overload, and Neural Adaptation
Overload vs. Overtraining
Closed and Open Kinematic or Kinetic Chains
Considerations of the Squat and its Variations as Cornerstones of Lower Extremity Exercise
The Spinal Engine
Axial-Appendicular Relationship and Anatomical Rationale for Core Stability
The Serape Effect
Kinesiological Monitors
Examples of Dynamic Stabilization Exercises
Total Gym
Plyometrics: Training for Power
Screening for Plyometric Training Readiness
Functional Performance Testing
Common Methods of Resistance Training
Resistance Machines
Free Weights, Dumbbells and Medicine Balls
Elastic Resistance Devices
Manual Resistance and Body Weight Resistance
Isokinetics
Other Resistance Training Environments
The Aquatic Environment
Friction: Lower Extremity Sliding Boards (Inertial/Isoinertial)
Swiss Ball
Common Denominators of Successful Knee Injury Prevention Programs
Summary
Chapter 6. Training For Joint Stability
by Timothy F. Tyler and Michael Mullaney
Introduction
The Structure Of Joint Stability
Joint Structure and Design
Diarthrodial Joint Designs
Non-Contractile Stability
Contractile Stability
Dynamic Joint Stability
Neuromuscular Control
Generalized Joint Hypomobility vs. Hypermobility
Inherent Vs. Acquired Joint Laxity
Spinal Stability
Increased Joint Laxity in Females: Fact or Fiction?
Joint Stability Changes Across the Lifespan
Treatment Techniques
Neuromuscular Training
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
Biofeedback
Lumbar Stabilization Training
Swiss Ball Therapy for Lumbar Stabilization
Taping for Joint Stability
Post-Operative Joint Stabilization Training
Functional, Prophylactic, and Post-Operative Orthoses
Summary
Chapter 7. Training for Proprioception and Kinesthesia
by William Ogard
Introduction
What is Proprioception?
Neuroanatomic and Neurophysiologic Basis for Proprioception
Muscle Receptors: Muscle Spindle and Golgi Tendon Organ (GTO)
Articular Receptors: Capsular and Ligamentous Mechanoreceptors
Evidence for a Primary Source of Afferent Information for Proprioception
Testing Proprioception
Knee Joint Proprioception Studies
Shoulder Joint Proprioception
Ankle Proprioception
The Spine and Proprioception
Effects of Training/Exercise on Proprioception
Aspects of Rehabilitation Exercise and Training with Utilization of Proprioceptive Input
Exercise and Training Guidelines
Summary
Chapter 8. Training for Neuromuscular Coordination and Re-Education
by Timothy Brindle
Introduction
Movement
Movement Accuracy
Movement Errors
Pointing or Reaching with the Upper Extremity
Locomotion
Input to the CNS
Visual Feedback
Mechanoreceptors
Central Nervous System - Motor Processing
Spinal Cord
Brain Stem
Cerebral Cortex
CNS Output
Background of Movement Control and Motor Learning
Equilibrium Point Hypothesis
The Alpha Model
The Lambda Model
Amplitude and Duration Control
CNS Control of Movement
Motor Planning- Input
Closed Loop Control
The Stretch Reflex and its Contribution to Motor Control
Motor Planning- Central Processing
Open Loop Control
Motor Programs
Motor Program- Output
Invariant Movement Parameters
Variable Movement Parameters
Muscle Output -- Characteristics
Synchronization
Muscle Macro- and Microscopic Architecture
Motor Learning
Motor Program Errors
Age and Training
Neuromuscular Training /Evaluation and Techniques
Critical Tracking Tasks
Medicine Ball or Plyometric Exercises from a Motor Control Perspective
Summary
Chapter 9. Training for Agility and Balance
by Claudia Angeli
Introduction
Components of Agility
Changes Across the Lifespan
Biomechanics of Agility
Walking
Ground Reaction Forces
Base of Support
Running
Cutting
Joint Moments
Reaching and Grasping
Agility Training Progressions
Agility Drill Examples
Balance
Summary
Chapter 10 Complementary and Alternative Approaches to Movement and Exercise
by Theresa J. Kraemer
Introduction
Recent Events
Terminology
Classification System
Basic Concepts Behind Complementary and Alternative Movement Approaches
Mind-Body-Energy Connection
Universal Life Force
Chakras or Energy Centers
Meridians or Channels
Energy Systems and Healing
Mind-Body-Energy-Movement Relationship
Energy Balance and Movement
Ten Principles of Movement Quality
Healing Through Movement
Dance Therapy
Background
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Evidence
Technique
Practitioner Training
The Feldenkrais Method
Background
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Techniques
Evidence
Equipment
Example: A Spinal ATM Lesson
Practitioner Training
Nickolaus Technique
Background
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Equipment
Technique
Evidence and Practitioner Requirements
Pilates
Background
Pilates Eight Basic Principles of Body Conditioning
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications and Special Precautions
Evidence
Equipment
Technique
Practitioner Training
Qigong
Background
Principles
Technique
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Evidence
Equipment
Basic Techniques
Practitioner Requirements
Tai Chi
Background
Basic Technique
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Evidence
Equipment
Technique
Beginning Tai Chi Exercise Program
Practitioner Training
Yoga
Background
Posture (Asana) and Breathing (Pranayama)
Therapeutic Indications
Contraindications
Evidence
Equipment
Technique
Example Yoga Program
Practitioner Requirements
0130480363 (alk. paper) 9780130480361
Exercise therapy.
Exercise Therapy.
Biomechanics.
Planning Techniques.
WB 541 N995c 2006