TY  - BOOK
AU  - Self,Douglas
TI  - Audio engineering
SN  - 9781856175265 (alk. paper)
AV  - 9781856175265 
PY  - 2009///
CY  - Amsterdam, Boston
PB  - Newnes/Elsevier
KW  - Sound
KW  - Recording and reproducing
KW  - Handbooks, manuals, etc
KW  - Digital techniques
N1  - Contents
About the Authors .............................................................................................................xv
I: Fundamentals of Sound ..................................................................................................1
Chapter 1: Audio Principles ...............................................................................................3
1.1 The Physics of Sound ................................................................................................3
1.2 Wavelength ................................................................................................................4
1.3 Periodic and Aperiodic Signals .................................................................................5
1.4 Sound and the Ear ......................................................................................................6
1.5 The Cochlea ...............................................................................................................9
1.6 Mental Processes .....................................................................................................11
1.7 Level and Loudness .................................................................................................14
1.8 Frequency Discrimination........................................................................................16
1.9 Frequency Response and Linearity ..........................................................................20
1.10 The Sine Wave .........................................................................................................22
1.11 Root Mean Square Measurements ...........................................................................25
1.12 The Decibel ..............................................................................................................26
1.13 Audio Level Metering ..............................................................................................30
References ................................................................................................................32
Chapter 2: Measurement ..................................................................................................33
2.1 Concepts Underlying the Decibel and its Use in Sound Systems ...........................33
2.2 Measuring Electrical Power .....................................................................................38
2.3 Expressing Power as an Audio Level ......................................................................39
2.4 Conventional Practice ..............................................................................................40
2.5 The Decibel in Acoustics—LP, LW, and LI ..............................................................42
2.6 Acoustic Intensity Level (LI), Acoustic Power Level (LW),
and Acoustic Pressure Level (LP) ............................................................................44
2.7 Inverse Square Law ..................................................................................................46
2.8 Directivity Factor .....................................................................................................47
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2.9 Ohm’s Law ..............................................................................................................47
2.10 A Decibel is a Decibel is a Decibel .........................................................................48
2.11 Older References .....................................................................................................48
2.12 The Equivalent Level (LEQ) in Noise Measurements ..............................................51
2.13 Combining Decibels ................................................................................................54
2.14 Combining Voltage ..................................................................................................58
2.15 Using the Log Charts ...............................................................................................58
2.16 Finding the Logarithm of a Number to Any Base ...................................................60
2.17 Semitone Intervals ...................................................................................................61
2.18 System Gain Changes ..............................................................................................62
2.19 The VU and the Volume Indicator Instrument ........................................................62
2.20 Calculating the Number of Decades in a Frequency Span ......................................68
2.21 Defl ection of the Eardrum at Various Sound Levels ...............................................69
2.22 The Phon ..................................................................................................................70
2.23 The Tempered Scale ................................................................................................73
2.24 Measuring Distortion ...............................................................................................73
2.25 The Acoustical Meaning of Harmonic Distortion ...................................................74
2.26 Playback Systems in Studios ...................................................................................76
2.27 Decibels and Percentages ........................................................................................77
2.28 Summary .................................................................................................................79
Further Reading .......................................................................................................79
Chapter 3: Acoustic Environment ....................................................................................81
3.1 The Acoustic Environment ......................................................................................81
3.2 Inverse Square Law .................................................................................................82
3.3 Atmospheric Absorption .........................................................................................84
3.4 Velocity of Sound ....................................................................................................85
3.5 Temperature-Dependent Velocity ............................................................................88
3.6 The Effect of Altitude on the Velocity of Sound in Air ..........................................88
3.7 Typical Wavelengths ................................................................................................89
3.8 Doppler Effect .........................................................................................................90
3.9 Refl ection and Refraction ........................................................................................91
3.10 Effect of a Space Heater on Flutter Echo ................................................................92
3.11 Absorption ...............................................................................................................94
3.12 Classifying Sound Fields .........................................................................................97
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3.13 The Acoustic Environment Indoors ......................................................................102
3.14 Conclusion ............................................................................................................112
Further Reading.....................................................................................................113
II: Audio Electronics .......................................................................................................115
Chapter 4: Components ..................................................................................................117
4.1 Building Block Components .................................................................................117
Chapter 5: Power Supply Design ....................................................................................139
5.1 High Power Systems .............................................................................................139
5.2 Solid-State Rectifi ers.............................................................................................143
5.3 Music Power..........................................................................................................144
5.4 Infl uence of Signal Type on Power Supply Design ..............................................144
5.5 High Current Power Supply Systems ....................................................................146
5.6 Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifi cation ...............................................................147
5.7 Direct Current Supply Line Ripple Rejection .......................................................147
5.8 Voltage Regulator Systems ...................................................................................148
5.9 Series Regulator Layouts ......................................................................................150
5.10 Overcurrent Protection ..........................................................................................152
5.11 Integrated Circuit (Three Terminals) Voltage Regulator ICs ................................153
5.12 Typical Contemporary Commercial Practice ........................................................157
5.13 Battery Supplies ....................................................................................................159
5.14 Switch-Mode Power Supplies ...............................................................................159
Reference ..............................................................................................................159
III: Preamplifi ers and Amplifi ers ...................................................................................161
Chapter 6: Introduction to Audio Amplifi cation............................................................163
Chapter 7: Preamplifi ers and Input Signals ..................................................................167
7.1 Requirements ........................................................................................................167
7.2 Signal Voltage and Impedance Levels ..................................................................167
7.3 Gramophone Pick-Up Inputs ................................................................................169
7.4 Input Circuitry .......................................................................................................171
7.5 Moving Coil Pick-up Head Amplifi er Design ......................................................175
7.6 Circuit Arrangements ............................................................................................176
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7.7 Input Connections .................................................................................................183
7.8 Input Switching .....................................................................................................184
7.9 Preamplifi er Stages ...............................................................................................186
7.10 Linearity ................................................................................................................188
7.11 Noise Levels ..........................................................................................................197
7.12 Output Voltage Characteristics ..............................................................................198
7.13 Voltage Amplifi er Design ......................................................................................200
7.14 Constant-Current Sources and “Current Mirrors” ................................................202
7.15 Performance Standards .........................................................................................209
7.16 Audibility of Distortion .........................................................................................212
7.17 General Design Considerations .............................................................................218
7.18 Controls .................................................................................................................219
References .............................................................................................................239
Chapter 8: Interfacing and Processing ..........................................................................241
8.1 The Input ...............................................................................................................241
8.2 Radio Frequency Filtration ...................................................................................252
8.3 Balanced Input ......................................................................................................253
8.4 Subsonic Protection and High-Pass Filtering ........................................................257
8.5 Damage Protection ................................................................................................263
8.6 What Are Process Functions? ...............................................................................267
8.7 Computer Control .................................................................................................278
References .............................................................................................................280
Chapter 9: Audio Amplifi ers ...........................................................................................283
9.1 Junction Transistors ..............................................................................................283
9.2 Control of Operating Bias .....................................................................................286
9.3 Stage Gain .............................................................................................................288
9.4 Basic Junction Transistor Circuit Confi gurations .................................................289
9.5 Emitter–Follower Systems ....................................................................................291
9.6 Thermal Dissipation Limits ..................................................................................294
9.7 Junction Field Effect Transistors ( JFETs) ............................................................295
9.8 Insulated Gate FETs (MOSFETs) .........................................................................299
9.9 Power BJTs vs Power MOSFETs as Amplifi er Output Devices ..........................303
9.10 U and D MOSFETs ...............................................................................................305
9.11 Useful Circuit Components ...................................................................................307
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9.12 Circuit Oddments ..................................................................................................309
9.13 Slew Rate Limiting ...............................................................................................311
References .............................................................................................................312
Chapter 10: Audio Amplifi er Performance ....................................................................313
10.1 A Brief History of Amplifi ers ...............................................................................313
10.2 Amplifi er Architectures.........................................................................................314
10.3 The Three-Stage Architecture ...............................................................................314
10.4 Power Amplifi er Classes .......................................................................................317
10.5 AC- and DC-Coupled Amplifi ers ..........................................................................325
10.6 Negative Feedback in Power Amplifi ers ...............................................................330
References .............................................................................................................334
Chapter 11: Valve (Tube-Based) Amplifi ers ...................................................................337
11.1 Valves or Vacuum Tubes .......................................................................................337
11.2 Solid-State Devices ...............................................................................................349
11.3 Valve Audio Amplifi er Layouts ............................................................................350
11.4 Single-Ended Versus Push–Pull Operation ...........................................................352
11.5 Phase Splitters .......................................................................................................355
11.6 Output Stages ........................................................................................................358
11.7 Output (Load-Matching) Transformer ..................................................................360
11.8 Effect of Output Load Impedance .........................................................................364
11.9 Available Output Power ........................................................................................365
References .............................................................................................................366
Chapter 12: Negative Feedback ......................................................................................367
12.1 Amplifi er Stability and Negative Feedback ..........................................................367
12.2 Maximizing Negative Feedback ............................................................................377
12.3 Maximizing Linearity Before Feedback ...............................................................378
Further Reading.....................................................................................................379
Chapter 13: Noise and Grounding .................................................................................381
13.1 Audio Amplifi er Printed Circuit Board Design ....................................................381
13.2 Amplifi er Grounding .............................................................................................390
13.3 Ground Loops: How They Work and How to Deal with Them ............................393
13.4 Class I and Class II................................................................................................400
13.5 Mechanical Layout and Design Considerations....................................................401
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IV: Digital Audio ............................................................................................................407
Chapter 14: Digital Audio Fundamentals ......................................................................409
14.1 Audio as Data ........................................................................................................409
14.2 What is an Audio Signal?......................................................................................411
14.3 Why Binary? .........................................................................................................414
14.4 Why Digital? .........................................................................................................418
14.5 Some Digital Audio Processes Outlined ...............................................................420
14.6 Time Compression and Expansion ........................................................................423
14.7 Error Correction and Concealment .......................................................................425
14.8 Channel Coding.....................................................................................................430
14.9 Audio Compression...............................................................................................431
14.10 Disk-Based Recording ..........................................................................................432
14.11 Rotary Head Digital Recorders .............................................................................432
14.12 Digital Audio Broadcasting ..................................................................................434
14.13 Networks ...............................................................................................................434
References .............................................................................................................436
Chapter 15: Representation of Audio Signals................................................................437
15.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................437
15.2 Analogue and Digital ............................................................................................437
15.3 Elementary Logical Processes ..............................................................................443
15.4 The Signifi cance of Bits and Bobs ........................................................................445
15.5 Transmitting Digital Signals .................................................................................448
15.6 The Analogue Audio Waveform ...........................................................................451
15.7 Arithmetic .............................................................................................................458
15.8 Digital Filtering .....................................................................................................467
15.9 Other Binary Operations .......................................................................................476
15.10 Sampling and Quantizing ......................................................................................478
15.11 Transform and Masking Coders ............................................................................494
References .............................................................................................................495
Chapter 16: Compact Disc ..............................................................................................497
16.1 Problems with Digital Encoding ...........................................................................497
16.2 The Record-Replay System ..................................................................................502
16.3 The Replay System ...............................................................................................505
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16.4 Error Correction ....................................................................................................520
References .............................................................................................................524
Chapter 17: Digital Audio Recording Basics .................................................................525
17.1 Types of Media ......................................................................................................525
17.2 Recording Media Compared .................................................................................533
17.3 Some Digital Audio Processes Outlined ...............................................................535
17.4 Hard Disc Recorders .............................................................................................550
17.5 The PCM Adaptor .................................................................................................553
17.6 An Open Reel Digital Recorder ............................................................................554
17.7 Rotary Head Digital Recorders .............................................................................556
17.8 Digital Compact Cassette ......................................................................................562
17.9 Editing Digital Audio Tape ...................................................................................563
References .............................................................................................................566
Chapter 18: Digital Audio Interfaces .............................................................................567
18.1 Digital Audio Interfaces ........................................................................................567
18.2 MADI (AES10–1991) Serial Multichannel Audio Digital Interface ....................575
Chapter 19: Data Compression ......................................................................................579
19.1 Lossless Compression ...........................................................................................580
19.2 Intermediate Compression Systems ......................................................................582
19.3 Psychoacoustic Masking Systems .........................................................................583
19.4 MPEG Layer 1 Compression (PASC) ...................................................................583
19.5 MPEG Layer 2 Audio Coding (MUSICAM) ........................................................586
19.6 MPEG Layer 3 ......................................................................................................587
19.7 MPEG-4 ................................................................................................................589
19.8 Digital Audio Production ......................................................................................592
Chapter 20: Digital Audio Production ...........................................................................593
20.1 Digital Audio Workstations (DAWs) ....................................................................593
20.2 Audio Data Files ...................................................................................................600
20.3 Sound Cards ..........................................................................................................602
20.4 PCI Bus Versus ISA Bus .......................................................................................602
20.5 Disks and Other Peripheral Hardware ..................................................................603
20.6 Hard Drive Interface Standards .............................................................................604
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20.7 Digital Noise Generation—Chain Code Generators .............................................606
References .............................................................................................................609
Chapter 21: Other Digital Audio Devices ......................................................................611
21.1 Video Recorders ....................................................................................................611
21.2 High Defi nition Compatible Digital (HDCD) .......................................................612
21.3 CD Writers ............................................................................................................612
21.4 MPEG Systems .....................................................................................................620
21.5 MP3 .......................................................................................................................625
21.6 Transcribing a Recording by Computer ................................................................626
21.7 WAV Onward ........................................................................................................629
21.8 DAM CD ...............................................................................................................630
21.9 DVD and Audio ....................................................................................................631
V: Microphone and Loudspeaker Technology ...............................................................637
Chapter 22: Microphone Technology .............................................................................639
22.1 Microphone Sensitivity .........................................................................................639
22.2 Microphone Selection ...........................................................................................643
22.3 Nature of Response and Directional Characteristics .............................................647
22.4 Wireless Microphones ...........................................................................................657
22.5 Microphone Connectors, Cables, and Phantom Power .........................................666
22.6 Measurement Microphones ...................................................................................671
Further Reading.....................................................................................................673
Chapter 23: Loudspeakers ..............................................................................................675
23.1 Radiation of Sound................................................................................................675
23.2 Characteristic Impedance ......................................................................................677
23.3 Radiation Impedance.............................................................................................677
23.4 Radiation from a Piston.........................................................................................677
23.5 Directivity .............................................................................................................678
23.6 Sound Pressure Produced at Distance r ................................................................679
23.7 Electrical Analogue ...............................................................................................682
23.8 Diaphragm/Suspension Assembly ........................................................................685
23.9 Diaphragm Size .....................................................................................................685
23.10 Diaphragm Profi le .................................................................................................687
23.11 Straight-Sided Cones.............................................................................................688
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23.12 Material .................................................................................................................690
23.13 Soft Domes ............................................................................................................691
23.14 Suspensions ...........................................................................................................692
23.15 Voice Coil ..............................................................................................................693
23.16 Moving Coil Loudspeaker.....................................................................................694
23.17 Motional Impedance .............................................................................................697
Further Reading.....................................................................................................703
Chapter 24: Loudspeaker Enclosures ............................................................................705
24.1 Loudspeakers ........................................................................................................705
24.2 The Interrelation of Components ..........................................................................720
Chapter 25: Headphones ................................................................................................731
25.1 A Brief History......................................................................................................731
25.2 Pros and Cons of Headphone Listening ................................................................732
25.3 Headphone Types ..................................................................................................734
25.4 Basic Headphone Types ........................................................................................741
25.5 Measuring Headphones .........................................................................................743
25.6 The Future .............................................................................................................745
VI: Sound Reproduction Systems ..................................................................................747
Chapter 26: Tape Recording ...........................................................................................749
26.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................749
26.2 Magnetic Theory ...................................................................................................750
26.3 The Physics of Magnetic Recording .....................................................................751
26.4 Bias........................................................................................................................752
26.5 Equalization ..........................................................................................................753
26.6 Tape Speed ............................................................................................................754
26.7 Speed Stability ......................................................................................................754
26.8 Recording Formats—Analogue Machines ............................................................756
Chapter 27: Recording Consoles ....................................................................................761
27.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................761
27.2 Standard Levels and Level Meters ........................................................................762
27.3 Standard Operating Levels and Line-Up Tones ....................................................770
27.4 Digital Line-Up .....................................................................................................771
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27.5 Sound Mixer Architecture and Circuit Blocks ......................................................771
27.6 Audio Mixer Circuitry ..........................................................................................779
27.7 Mixer Automation .................................................................................................793
27.8 Digital Consoles ....................................................................................................795
References .......................................................................807
Chapter 28: Video Synchronization ...............................................................................809
28.1 Introduction ........................................................ 809
28.2 Persistence of Vision .......................................................809
28.3 Cathode Ray Tube and Raster Scanning ........................................810
28.4 Television Signal ...................................................................................................811
28.5 Color Perception ...................................................................................................814
28.6 Color Television ....................................................816
28.7 Analogue Video Interfaces..............................................823
28.8 Digital Video ...............................................................824
28.9 Embedded Digital Audio in the Digital Video Interface ...................834
28.10 Time Code ......................................................837

Chapter 29: Room Acoustics ..........................................................................................841
29.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................841
29.2 Noise Control ........................................................................................................842
29.3 Studio and Control Room Acoustics .....................................................................854
VII: Audio Test and Measurement .................................................................................869
Chapter 30: Fundamentals and Instruments .................................................................871
30.1 Instrument Types ...................................................................................................872
30.2 Signal Generators ..................................................................................................873
30.3 Alternative Waveform Types .................................................................................885
30.4 Distortion Measurement ........................................................................................890
Index ...............................................................................................................................891
; Includes bibliographical references and index
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